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THE  VATICAN 


\, 


RT.  REV.  EDMOND  CANON 
•  HUGUES  DE  RAGNAU  • 


:// 


THE  VATICAN 

more,  in  this  way  they  would  show  to  the  world  that 
they  considered  themselves  the  legitimate  successors 
of  St.  Peter,  over  whose  tomb  they  alone  kept  guard. 
It  is  generally  known  that  the  first  basilica  of  St. 
Peter  of  the  Vatican  was  raised  by  the  Emperor 
Constantine  over  the  tomb  of  the  Apostle  and  partly 
on  the  site  of  Nero's  circus.  At  the  north  of  the 
circus  was  a  palace  built  by  Nero  himself  which  had 
nearly  fallen  into  ruins  three  centuries  later  and 
which,  it  is  believed,  Constantine  restored  as  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Pope  Melchiades  in  312.  In  fact,  ac- 
cording to  the  learned  Ciampini,  Constantine  built 
two  palaces  on  either  side  of  the  basilica, — one  on  the 
north,  which  was  the  restored  Neronian  palace  just 
mentioned,  and  which  was  set  aside  for  the  Popes, 
and  the  other  on  the  south  to  serve  as  a  home  for  the 
clergy.  The  latter  is  supposed  to  have  occupied  the 
site  of  the  present  Palace  of  the  Holy  Office.  In 
352,  Pope  St.  Liberius  was  living  in  the  Palace  of 
the  Vatican;  and  about  a  century  and  a  half  later,  in 
498,  Pope  St.  Symmachus  restored  this  palace  and 
so  enlarged  it  that  some  authors  have  made  the  error 
of  attributing  to  him  its  initial  construction.  Since 
then,  the  Vatican  has  become  the  regular  residence 
of  the  Popes,  who  have  often  dated  their  apostolic 
letters,  Apud  sanctum  Petrum,  "At  St.  Peter's." 
During  his  sojourn  in  Rome,  Charlemagne  appears 
also  to  have  inhabited  this  edifice. 

During  the  following  centuries,  the  Vatican  was 
enlarged  and  embellished  by  a  great  many  Popes. 
Among  these  were  Eugenius  III,  1145;  Nicholas  III, 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

1277;  John  XXIII,  who,  in  1410,  constructed  the 
gallery  which  connects  it  with  the  Castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo;  and  Nicholas  V,  1450,  who  wished  to  make 
the  Vatican  the  greatest  palace  in  the  world  and  to 
lodge  therein  the  whole  body  of  cardinals  and  all  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  He  was  able,  however,  to 
carry  out  only  a  small  part  of  his  grandiose  scheme. 
Alexander  VI,  1492,  embellished  the  Papal  apart- 
ment, called  after  him,  the  Borgia  Apartment. 
Sixtus  IV  constructed  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  1473. 
Innocent  VIII,  1490,  built  the  Villa  Belvedere,  which 
Julius  II,  1503,  engaged  the  architect  Bramante  to 
connect  with  the  palace  by  a  long  loggia.  The  same 
architect  built  the  loggia  of  the  Damaso  Court,  which 
contains  the  celebrated  paintings  of  Raphael.  Paul 
III,  1534,  built  the  Pauline  Chapel  and  Sixtus  V,  the 
Library.  The  present  apartments  of  the  Pope  were 
finished  by  Clement  VIII,  1592-1605.  Urban  VIII, 
1623,  added  the  grand  staircase  from  plans  by  Ber- 
nini; Pius  VI,  the  Rotonda,  the  Greek  Cross  Room 
and  the  Stanze  of  the  Muses.  Pius  VII,  1800, 
erected  the  New  Wing,  Braccio  Nuovo,  or  the  Mu- 
seum of  Sculpture,  and,  finally  Pius  IX,  1898,  closed 
the  fourth  side  of  the  Damaso  Court  by  covering  and 
modifying  the  grand  staircase  leading  to  it. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  Vatican  Palace  is  not  built 
after  a  single  plan.  It  is,  rather,  a  reunion  of  many 
palaces  and  buildings  of  different  styles  and  epochs, 
all  cleverly  joined  together  by  talented  architects,  so 
that  the  visitor,  in  going  from  one  to  the  other,  seems 
to  be  always  in  one  and  the  same  edifice.  And  yet, 


THE 
VATICAN 


MESS  Pu  s  X 


CENTER,  OF  GOVERNMENT 


THE  CATHOLIC  WORLD 


BY 


EDMOND  CANON  HLBUES  de  RAGNAU 


NEW  YORK  AND  DNDON 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

1913 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 

His  HOLINESS  Pius  X 


VATICAN 

THE  CENTER  OF  GOVERNMENT 
OF  THE  CATHOLIC  WORLD 


BY 

RT.  REV.  EDMOND  CANON  HUGUES  de  RAGNAU 


NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

1913 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

CHAPTER  PAOF. 

I. — THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 1 

History  and  Brief  Description  of  the  Edifice — The 
Personages  of  the  Pontifical  Family — The  Per- 
sonnel of  the  Pontifical  Chapel — The  Palatine 
Administration. 


II.— THE   POPE 27 

The  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church — The  Doctrine 
of  Papal  Infallibility — The  Election  of  the  Pon- 
tiff— The  Church  as  a  Perfect  Society — The 
Pontifical  Orders — The  Life  of  Pius  X — His 
Innumerable  Occupations. 

III. — THE  POPE'S  CHIEF  COLLABORATORS 44 

The  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals:  Bishops,  Priests 
and  Deacons — The  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State 
—The  Apostolic  Nuncios  and  Legates — The 
Cardinal  Vicar — The  Cardinal  Grand  Peniten- 
tiary— The  Cardinal  Prefects  of  the  Sacred 
Congregations — The  Administration  of  Papal 
Finances — Peter's  Pence. 

IV. — THE   ROMAN   CURIA 58 

The  Reorganization  of  the  Curia  by  Pius  X — The 
Office  System  of  the  Curia— The  'Pontifical  Min- 
isterial Departments  or  Sacred  Congregations — 
The  Ecclesiastical  Tribunals — The  Bureaus. 

PART  II 
V. — THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  WORLD   .      .      97 

The  Diocese  as  a  Basis  of  Ecclesiastical  Adminis- 
tration— The    Eastern    Church    Situation — The 
v 


CONTEiNTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Growth  of  the  Church — Catholic  Missions — 
The  Secular  Clergy — The  Diocesan  Seminaries 
— Parochialism — The  Religious  Orders. 

VI. — THE  POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY  OF  CATHOLICISM   176 

The  Political  Principles  of  the  Holy  See— The 
Chief  Politico-Religious  Affairs  of  Recent 
Years  in  France,  Belgium,  Austria,  Hungary, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Russia, 
Poland,  Germany,  the  United  States,  Canada, 
Central  and  South  America,  Turkey,  the  Balkan 
States  and  Greece,  Scandinavia  and  Holland. 

VII. — THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 299 

The  Preservation  and  Propagation  of  the  Faith — 
Diocesan  Councils  of  Surveillance  Nominated  by 
the  Bishops — Principal  Dogmatic  Problems  of 
Recent  Times — The  Old  Catholics  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland — Americanism  in  the  United 
States — Modernism  in  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Italy  and  America — An  Analysis  of  the 
Encyclical  Pascendi  Condemning  Modernism — 
Mariavitism  in  Poland — The  Relations  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  with  Dissenters. 

PART  III 
VIII. — CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 349 

The  Church  and  Modern  Science — Catholic  Men  of 
Science — The  Catholic  Educational  Organiza- 
tions Stationed  in  Rome;  Academies,  Universi- 
ties, Seminaries  and  Colleges  Belonging  to  the 
Different  Nations — The  Catholic  Universities, 
Seminaries,  Primary  and  Secondary  Schools  in 
the  World  at  Large — The  Question  of  Neutral 
Schools. 

IX. — WHAT  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TEACHES      .      .      .   394 

Scholastic  Philosophy — Dogmatic  and  Moral  The- 
ology— Holy  Scripture — Canon  Law — Ecclesi- 
astical History — The  Other  Sacred  Sciences 
Emanating  from  Catholic  Doctrine:  the  Liturgy, 
Ascetic  Theology,  and  Pastoral  Theology, 
vi 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

X. — THE  SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES  OF  CATHOLI- 
CISM      433 

The  Church  as  Guide  in  the  Practical,  Spiritual 
and  Christian  Life  of  the  Faithful — The  Holy 
Sacraments — The  Ecclesiastical  Laws  Govern- 
ing Marriage — The  Prohibitive  and  Penal  Laws 
of  the  Church:  Excommunication;  Refusal  to 
Administer  the  Sacraments;  Refusal  to  Grant 
Ecclesiastical  Burial;  Opposition  to  Cremation; 
Prohibition  of  Duels,  Hypnotism,  Spiritualism; 
Regulations  Concerning  Entertainments. 

CONCLUSION  .   452 


vii 


PART  I 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

History  and  Brief  Description  of  the  Edifice — The  Personages 
of  the  Pontifical  Family — The  Personnel  of  the  Pontifical 
Chapel — The  Palatine  Administration. 

THE  Palace  of  the  Vatican  is  known  to  the  whole 
world  and  is  surrounded  with  the  most  ardent  sym- 
pathies of  all  Catholics.  It  is  in  fact  the  official  resi- 
dence of  the  common  father  of  all  the  faithful,  and 
on  this  account  is  the  center  of  the  Church.  Accord- 
ing to  the  words  of  St.  Augustine,  Ubi  Petrus,  ibi 
Ecclesia,  "Where  Peter  is,  there  is  the  Church."  But 
it  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter 
into  a  minute  description  of  the  Vatican,  such  as  is 
found  in  guide-books  for  visitors  to  Rome.  It  will 
suffice  for  our  purpose  to  give  the  main  outlines  of 
the  history  of  the  famous  structure  and  to  touch  upon 
the  ensemble  of  its  chief  features. 

As  soon  as  Catholicism  had  obtained  relief  and 
could  show  itself  to  the  light  of  day,  after  the  bloody 
persecutions  of  the  early  centuries,  when  the  new 
religion  mounted  the  throne  itself  in  the  person  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  the  natural  desire  of  the  Popes 
was  to  establish  their  residence  near  the  tombs  of  the 
Apostles,  so  venerated  by  the  faithful.  Further- 

1 


THE  VATICAN 

more,  in  this  way  they  would  show  to  the  world  that 
they  considered  themselves  the  legitimate  successors 
of  St.  Peter,  over  whose  tomb  they  alone  kept  guard. 
It  is  generally  known  that  the  first  basilica  of  St. 
Peter  of  the  Vatican  was  raised  by  the  Emperor 
Constantine  over  the  tomb  of  the  Apostle  and  partly 
on  the  site  of  Nero's  circus.  At  the  north  of  the 
circus  was  a  palace  built  by  Nero  himself  which  had 
nearly  fallen  into  ruins  three  centuries  later  and 
which,  it  is  believed,  Constantine  restored  as  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Pope  Melchiades  in  312.  In  fact,  ac- 
cording to  the  learned  Ciampini,  Constantine  built 
two  palaces  on  either  side  of  the  basilica, — one  on  the 
north,  which  was  the  restored  Neronian  palace  just 
mentioned,  and  which  was  set  aside  for  the  Popes, 
and  the  other  on  the  south  to  serve  as  a  home  for  the 
clergy.  The  latter  is  supposed  to  have  occupied  the 
site  of  the  present  Palace  of  the  Holy  Office.  In 
352,  Pope  St.  Liberius  was  living  in  the  Palace  of 
the  Vatican;  and  about  a  century  and  a  half  later,  in 
498,  Pope  St.  Symmachus  restored  this  palace  and 
so  enlarged  it  that  some  authors  have  made  the  error 
of  attributing  to  him  its  initial  construction.  Since 
then,  the  Vatican  has  become  the  regular  residence 
of  the  Popes,  who  have  often  dated  their  apostolic 
letters,  A  pud  sanctum  Petrum,  "At  St.  Peter's." 
During  his  sojourn  in  Rome,  Charlemagne  appears 
also  to  have  inhabited  this  edifice. 

During  the  following  centuries,  the  Vatican  was 
enlarged  and  embellished  by  a  great  many  Popes. 
Among  these  were  Eugenius  III,  1145;  Nicholas  III, 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

1277;  John  XXIII,  who,  in  1410,  constructed  the 
gallery  which  connects  it  with  the  Castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo;  and  Nicholas  V,  1450,  who  wished  to  make 
the  Vatican  the  greatest  palace  in  the  world  and  to 
lodge  therein  the  whole  body  of  cardinals  and  all  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  He  was  able,  however,  to 
carry  out  only  a  small  part  of  his  grandiose  scheme. 
Alexander  VI,  1492,  embellished  the  Papal  apart- 
ment, called  after  him,  the  Borgia  Apartment. 
Sixtus  IV  constructed  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  1473. 
Innocent  VIII,  1490,  built  the  Villa  Belvedere,  which 
Julius  II,  1503,  engaged  the  architect  Bramante  to 
connect  with  the  palace  by  a  long  loggia.  The  same 
architect  built  the  loggia  of  the  Damaso  Court,  which 
contains  the  celebrated  paintings  of  Raphael.  Paul 
III,  1534,  built  the  Pauline  Chapel  and  Sixtus  V,  the 
Library.  The  present  apartments  of  the  Pope  were 
finished  by  Clement  VIII,  1592-1605.  Urban  VIII, 
1623,  added  the  grand  staircase  from  plans  by  Ber- 
nini; Pius  VI,  the  Rotonda,  the  Greek  Cross  Room 
and  the  Stanze  of  the  Muses.  Pius  VII,  1800, 
erected  the  New  Wing,  Braccio  Nuovo,  or  the  Mu- 
seum of  Sculpture,  and,  finally  Pius  IX,  1898,  closed 
the  fourth  side  of  the  Damaso  Court  by  covering  and 
modifying  the  grand  staircase  leading  to  it. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  Vatican  Palace  is  not  built 
after  a  single  plan.  It  is,  rather,  a  reunion  of  many 
palaces  and  buildings  of  different  styles  and  epochs, 
all  cleverly  joined  together  by  talented  architects,  so 
that  the  visitor,  in  going  from  one  to  the  other,  seems 
to  be  always  in  one  and  the  same  edifice.  And  yet, 

3 


THE  VATICAN 

the  Vatican  is  composed  of  not  less  than  twenty  courts 
and  over  11,000  rooms,  parlors,  chapels,  et  cetera. 
The  greatest  architects,  painters  and  sculptors  of  the 
world  have  worked  upon  it  and  enriched  it  with  their 
art.  Who  has  not  heard  of  Raphael,  Michaelangelo, 
Bramante,  Bernini,  San  Gallo,  Perugino,  Daniele  da 
Volterra,  Vasari,  Giovanni  da  Udine,  John  of  Bo- 
logna, the  Cavaliere  di  Arpino,  Pietro  da  Cortona, 
Paul  Bril,  Romanelli,  Bronzino,  Varese,  Giuseppe 
della  Porta,  Fontana  and  so  many  other  eminent 
artists  ? 

The  chief  parts  of  the  Vatican,  after  the  palace 
itself  inhabited  by  the  Pope,  as  seen  in  its  majestic 
ensemble  from  the  Piazza  of  St.  Peter's,  are:  The 
Sistine  Chapel,  containing  the  famous  frescoes  of 
Michaelangelo,  including  the  celebrated  "Last  Judg- 
ment"; the  Loggia  and  frescoed  Stanze  of  Raphael; 
the  Pinacoteca,  in  which  has  been  hung  a  collection 
of  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  the  world,  such  as  the 
"Transfiguration,"  the  "Madonna  di  Foligno,"  and 
other  pictures  by  Raphael,  the  "St.  Sebastian"  by 
Titian  and  Murillo's  "Holy  Family." 

Let  us  glance  for  a  moment  at  some  of  the  remark- 
able treasures  of  the  Vatican.  There  is  the  gallery 
containing  the  Raphael  tapestries,  executed  at  Brus- 
sels in  1515  from  designs  made  by  the  illustrious 
painter.  Seven  of  these  designs  were  bought  in 
Flanders  by  Charles  I  of  England  and  are  now  to 
be  seen  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum  at  London. 
The  subjects  are  taken  from  the  life  of  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  and  the  lives  of  the  Apostles.  Each 

4 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

tapestry  cost  more  than  t$3,400,  but  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  what  they  are  worth  today. 

The  Museum  of  Antiques,  perhaps  the  finest  col- 
lection of  its  kind  in  the  world,  was  begun  by  Popes 
Julius  II,  Leo  X,  Clement  VII,  and  Paul  III.  The 
principal  part  is  in  the  Belvedere  Court,  where, 
among  other  things,  are  to  be  seen  a  Hercules,  the 
Apollo  Belvedere  and  the  Laocoon.  In  the  Pio- 
Clementino  Museum,  composed  of  eleven  rooms,  are 
the  marble  biff  a,  or  antique  two-horse  car,  the  disco- 
bolus, or  quoit  player,  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Empress 
Helena,  some  remarkable  heads  of  Jupiter,  a  whole 
room  of  animal  statuary,  the  Sleeping  Ariadne,  the 
Barberini  candelabra,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
antiques  of  this  kind  in  existence,  a  cabinet  of  masks, 
a  statue  of  Demosthenes,  the  sarcophagus  of  the 
grandfather  of  Scipio  Africanus,  a  head  of  Neptune, 
the  bust  of  the  young  Augustus,  a  daughter  of  Niobe, 
a  superb  Greek  work,  a  colossal  statue  of  the  Nile, 
et  cetera. 

Then  there  is  the  Egyptian  Museum  founded  by 
Pius  VII  and  Gregory  XVI,  composed  of  six  rooms 
full  of  mummies,  sarcophagi  and  other  precious  re- 
mains of  Egyptian  antiquity;  the  Etruscan  Museum, 
created  by  Gregory  XVI,  containing  eleven  rooms 
of  antiques  discovered  from  1828  to  1836  at  Vulci, 
Veii,  Chiusi,  Toscanella  and  other  Etruscan  cities, 
consisting  of  statues,  paintings,  vases,  gold  ornaments 
and  bronze  utensils — all  of  the  greatest  interest  in 
the  history  of  Italian  art  and  the  study  of  the  enig- 
matic customs  of  the  Etruscans. 

5 


THE  VATICAN 

The  Vatican  Library  is  rich  in  manuscripts;  most 
of  them  belong  to  the  Archives  of  the  Holy  See. 
According  to  the  recent  classification  of  Father 
Ehrle,  who  reorganized  the  whole  collection,  the  Vati- 
can possesses  about  50,000  MMS..,  18,000  of  which 
are  still  awaiting  examination.  Of  this  vast  num- 
ber about  31,000  are  in  Latin,  5,000  in  Greek  and 
2,000  in  Eastern  tongues.  There  are  also  some 
350,000  printed  and  catalogued  works.  The  libra- 
rians, among  whom  have  been  the  learned  Cardinals 
Mai  and  Pitra,  have  always  been  scholars  recognized 
as  such  by  the  world  at  large.  The  whole  Library, 
except  the  portion  containing  the  more  recent  Ar- 
chives, is  thrown  open  to  those  who  would  consult  it. 
Among  its  curiosities  may  be  mentioned  a  Greek 
manuscript  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  said  to  have  been 
written  by  St.  John  Chrysostom,  a  second-century 
version  of  the  Septuagint,  and  Henry  VIII's  book 
on  the  sacraments  written  before  the  schism. 

The  Museum  of  Christian  Antiquities  is  also  most 
remarkable,  containing  as  it  does  objects  coming 
from  the  catacombs  and  early  Christian  churches — 
lamps,  glass  vessels,  ampullae,  cameos,  statuettes, 
paintings,  altar-cloths,  crosses,  et  cetera.  The  di- 
rector of  this  collection  used  to  be  the  well-known  and 
scholarly  archeologist,  Giovanni  Battista  de  Rossi, 
whose  place  is  filled  today  by  his  disciple,  Baron 
Rodolph  Kansler. 

The  Gallery  of  Inscriptions  must  not  be  forgotten 
even  in  the  most  summary  description  of  the  Vatican. 
Here  are  to  be  found,  arranged  by  centuries  along 

6 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

the  walls  from  floor  to  ceiling,  thousands  of  ancient 
inscriptions,  pagan  and  Christian,  of  the  first  impor- 
tance from  an  historical  point  of  view. 

This  is  but  a  brief  and  incomplete  account  of  what 
the  Popes  have  done,  in  the  midst  of  their  many  cares, 
for  the  sciences  and  the  arts,  and  for  the  glory  of 
Italy.  Yet  the  sectaries  and  the  ignorant  who  give 
ear  to  them,  accuse  the  heads  of  the  Church  of  ob- 
scurantism and  hostility  to  all  progress  of  the  human 
mind! 

In  April,  1909,  Pius  X,  who  is  a  most  appreciative 
admirer  of  the  masterpieces  in  the  galleries  of  the 
Vatican,  ordered  collected  in  seven  large  and  well- 
lighted  rooms  many  good  canvases  which  had  been 
neglected  and  were  badly  hung.  This  new  Pinaco- 
teca  contains  270  pictures  arranged  by  centuries,  so 
that  the  visitor  may  easily  grasp  the  genesis  of  the 
Italian  schools  of  painting.  Through  the  room  con- 
taining the  masters  of  the  fourteenth  century,  he  is 
conducted  to  that  of  the  masters  of  the  fifteenth. 
Next  come  the  works  of  the  immediate  precursors  of 
Raphael,  followed  by  those  of  this  master  of  masters, 
those  of  the  sixteenth,  or  the  Venetian,  century ;  after 
them,  pictures  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  and  finally, 
the  last  room,  containing  a  small  number  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  foreign  schools, — Poussin  for  France, 
Sieghels  for  Holland,  Lawrence,  with  a  portrait  of 
George  IV,  for  England,  and  a  few  others.  The 
installation  and  excellent  order  of  this  new  gallery 
are  due  to  Monsignor  Misciatelli,  Sub-Prefect  of  the 
Sacred  Apostolic  Palaces,  who  was  ably  assisted  in 
a  7 


THE  VATICAN 

the  work  by  a  talented  young  painter,  Pietro  Achiardi, 
who  followed  that  gifted  painter,  the  late  Signer  Seitz, 
the  artistic  Director  of  Galleries  and  Paintings  of  the 
Sacred  Apostolic  Palaces,  to  give  him  his  full  title. 
So  interested  in  this  gallery  was  His  Holiness  that  he 
inaugurated  it  in  the  presence  of  all  the  cardinals  and 
the  diplomatic  corps  accredited  to  the  Vatican. 

The  Vatican  Palace  is  a  superb  setting  for  the  Holy 
Father  and  the  Pontifical  Curia  which  is  composed 
of  the  Pontifical  Family  and  the  Pontifical  Chapel. 
The  question  is  sometimes  asked  by  those  separated 
from  the  Church:  Why  is  there  a  Pontifical  Court? 
Why  all  this  pomp  surrounding  the  Vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ,  Who  was  poor,  and  Who  so  despised  riches? 
Why  this  waste  of  money,  when  the  needs  of  the 
Church  are  so  great  ?  To  those  who  do  not  belong  to 
the  Church,  one  may  put  the  question :  What  matter  is 
it  of  yours  what  Catholics  do,  since  they  do  not  ques- 
tion you  about  the  immense  salaries  paid  bishops  and 
even  simple  clergymen  in  the  Anglican  and  other 
Protestant  diurches,  especially  in  the  United  States? 

As  regards  the  objection  that  Christ  was  poor,  this, 
too,  is  easily  answered.  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  being 
God,  His  state  was  not  so  destitute  as  some  would 
have  us  suppose ;  and  if  He  made  no  use  of  these  im- 
mense riches,  it  was  in  order  to  teach  us  a  divine  les- 
son in  humility  and  renunciation.  But  where  in  the 
Gospels  are  we  taught  that  He  wished  His  disciples 
to  live  in  want?  What  He  asks  of  the  faithful  is  to 
be  "poor  in  spirit"  (St.  Matthew  5:3) — that  is,  not 
to  regard  wealth  as  the  chief  aim  of  life.  As  St.  Paul 

8 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

has  said,  "They  that  buy,  be  as  though  they  pos- 
sessed not."     (I  Corinthians  7:30.) 

Furthermore,  for  Catholics,  Christ  is  always  living 
in  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Should  we  not,  therefore, 
surround  the  tabernacle  and  altar  where  He  is  with 
the  most  precious  things  we  can  obtain?  Should  not 
much  be  done  for  the  Holy  Father  who  is  the  Vicar 
of  Jesus  Christ  on  earth?  We  do  not  care  to  see  him 
humiliated  and  poor,  as  the  enemies  of  Catholicism 
would  wish.  We  prefer  to  have  him  independent 
and  surrounded  with  sovereign  state,  in  keeping  with 
the  lofty  authority  with  which  he  is  clothed.  Further- 
more, glance  for  a  moment  at  the  use  which  the  Pope 
makes  of  the  fortune  furnished  him  by  his  children. 
Does  he  enrich  his  family?  Does  he  enrich  himself? 
The  niece  of  Pius  IX  married  a  captain  of  gendarmes. 
The  nephews  of  Leo  XIII  contracted  unions  in  keep- 
ing with  the  noble  situation  of  the  Pecci  family  in 
the  fashionable  world,  but  the  Pope  did  not  contribute 
to  their  fortunes.  The  sisters  and  other  relatives  of 
the  present  Pope  continue  to  live  in  the  modest  situ- 
ation which  they  occupied  before  Cardinal  Sarto  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Church.  It  is  the  rule  of 
the  Popes  to  employ  the  revenues  of  the  Church  for 
the  Church  and  for  the  poor.  The  charitable  actions 
of  the  present  P.ope  are  known  throughout  the 
Christian  world,  and  the  extreme  generosity  which  he 
showed  at  the  time  of  the  Messina  earthquake  is  still 
remembered.  Any  other  policy  than  this  would  lay 
the  Holy  Father  open  to  the  charge  of  nepotism,  an 
abuse  which  has  indeed  stained  the  Holy  See,  but 

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which  the  Popes  themselves  condemned  and  finally 
eliminated. 

The  Pontifical  Curia,  or  the  Court  of  St.  Peter,  as 
we  have  said  before,  is  divided  into  the  Family 
(Famiglia)  and  the  Chapel  (Capella).  The  former 
term  is  applied  to  those  who  are  most  closely  attached 
to  the  person  of  His  Holiness,  and  the  very  name 
itself  shows  with  what  absolute  and  filial  devotion 
these  servitors  surround  their  august  master,  who  is 
to  them  more  a  father  than  a  sovereign.  Standing 
first  in  this  group  are  the  two  Palatine  Cardinals: 
the  Cardinal  Datary,  Cardinal  di  Pietro,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  write  all  apostolic  letters  concerned  with  the 
investigation  of  the  fitness  of  candidates  for  consis- 
torial  benefices  reserved  by  the  Holy  See;  the  Car- 
dinal Secretary  of  State,  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val, 
the  confidential  assistant  of  the  Pope,  who  has  in 
charge  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Vatican. 

Next  come  the  Palatine  Prelates:  the  Majordomo, 
the  Maestro  di  Camera,  or  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace,  and  the  Camerieri  segreti  Partedpanti.  The 
Majordomo,  or  chief  stewart  of  the  household  of  His 
Holiness,  occupies  himself  with  all  that  concerns  the 
material  and  personal  side  of  the  Vatican.  During 
an  interregnum  he  is  governor  of  the  Conclave  and 
has  general  control  of  the  personnel  of  the  palaces; 
all  extraordinary  religious  functions  in  which  the 
Pope  and  the  Papal  court  participate  are  under 
his  direction.  The  Master  of  the  Apostolic  Camera 
regulates  all  matters  concerning  the  daily  personal 
service  of  His  Holiness,  is  the  immediate  superior  of 

10 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

all  the  chamberlains,  and  arranges  for  the  private  and 
public  audiences  of  the  Pope.  Since  1906  these  two 
posts  have  been  united  in  the  person  of  the  amiable 
prelate  so  well  known  to  all  those  who  visit  Rome. 
Monsignor  Ranuzzi,  formerly  Bishop  of  Loreto,  and 
Counselor  of  the  Papal  Nunciature  at  Paris.  The 
Master  of  the  Apostolic  Palace  is  Monsignor  Alberto 
Lepidi,  a  Dominican.  This  office  has  been  filled  by 
a  Dominican  since  1216  when  Honorius  III  ap- 
pointed St.  Dominic  master.  It  has  in  charge  the 
care  of  the  faith  in  the  palace,  and  the  granting  of 
the  Imprimatur,  or  permission  to  print  books  pub- 
lished at  Rome  or  written  by  residents  of  Rome. 

The  Private  Chamberlains,  called  partedpanti,  are 
next  in  order  among  the  Palatine  Prelates.  The 
term  private  or  "secret"  at  the  Vatican  means  really 
"intimate."  One  of  these,  the  Private  Almoner,  is 
at  present  Monsignor  Sili,  Archbishop  of  Cesarea, 
who  distributes  the  Papal  charity,  which  is  consider- 
able, especially  at  Christmas  and  Easter.  It  has  al- 
ways been  a  pleasant  memory  at  the  Vatican  that  the 
well-known  French  Catholic  publicist,  the  late  Louis 
Veuillot,  related  in  his  book,  entitled  "Perfumes  of 
Rome,"  that,  standing  in  the  crowd  of  poor  on  one 
of  these  festal  days,  he,  in  his  turn,  received  from 
the  Pope's  almoner  a  paolo — about  the  equivalent  of 
a  dime — which  he  had  framed  as  a  precious  souvenir. 
Another  chamberlain  is  the  Secretary  of  Briefs  to 
Princes,  who  is  always  an  excellent  Latinist.  Then 
there  are  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  State,  the  Sub- 
Datary,  the  Secretary  for  Latin  Letters,  the  Copyist, 

11 


THE  VATICAN 

the  Secretary  of  Embassies  and  the  Master  of  the 
Robes.  To  these  are  added  as  Palatine  prelates  the 
Sacristan  and  the  Secretary  of  Ceremonies.  The 
Sacristan  of  His  Holiness,  who  is  always  of  the 
Augustinian  Order,  is  the  Titular  Bishop  of  Por- 
phyreon,  Curator  of  the  Sacred  Apostolic  Palaces. 
This  prelate,  who  has  attained  the  advanced  age  of 
ninety-one,  was  the  confessor  of  Pius  IX  and  of  Leo 
XIII,  and  continues  the  same  holy  function  for  the 
reigning  Pope.  In  this  instance,  the  designation  of 
"sacristan"  signifies  "guardian  of  sacred  things,"  for 
this  prelate  is  charged  with  the  safe  keeping  of  the 
relics  of  St.  Peter.  In  addition,  he  aids  the  Pope  in 
all  those  ceremonies  where  His  Holiness  is  required 
by  the  liturgical  rules  to  be  accompanied  by  a  bishop. 
As  a  Curator  of  the  Apostolic  Palaces,  he  has  an  as- 
sistant, or  vicar,  who  is  also  an  Augustinian.  Still 
another  chamberlain  in  the  Secretary  of  Ceremonials, 
who  is  the  head  of  the  "Protocol,"  an  office  which  is 
found  in  all  courts.  It  is  his  duty  to  regulate  all 
questions  of  precedence,  et  cetera. 

The  Vatican  forms  a  parish  of  several  hundred 
souls  comprising  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  palace — 
that  is,  the  Swiss  Guards,  the  gendarmes,  the  domestic 
servants  of  the  prelates,  the  guardians  of  the  mu- 
seums, and  all  the  other  various  employes  of  the 
Vatican,  many  of  whom  have  wives  and  children. 
The  Vatican  also  contains  a  school  and  a  parish 
chapel,  the  Pauline  Chapel,  where  various  church 
gatherings  are  held  as  well  as  the  usual  church 
services  of  an  ordinary  parish — marriages,  baptisms, 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

burials,  Sunday  and  festival  services.  Though  the 
Pope  has  a  private  chapel,  he  often  attends  Mass  in 
the  Pauline  Chapel  among  his  faithful  servitors. 

The  third  group  of  the  Pontifical  Family  consists 
of  the  domestic  prelates  of  the  Pope's  household,  who 
are  divided  into  several  "colleges,"  with  varying 
duties.  They  do  not  reside  in  the  Vatican,  and  most 
of  them  are  dispersed  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
where  they  sometimes  discharge  ecclesiastical  func- 
tions. The  first  of  these  prelatical  colleges  is  that  of 
the  Patriarchs,  Archbishops  and  Bishops  Assisting 
at  the  Pontifical  Throne.  Their  duties  are  to  aid  the 
Holy  Father  when  he  celebrates  Pontifical  Mass. 
Then  comes  the  College  of  the  Apostolic  Prothono- 
tarial  Prelates,  the  most  ancient  group  of  these  col- 
leges, since  it  was  founded  by  Pope  Clement,  successor 
of  St.  Peter.  The  prothonotaries  are  charged  with 
the  drawing  up  and  authenticating  of  the  official 
documents  sent  forth  from  the  Holy  See.  In  ac- 
cordance with  a  Motu  Proprio,  or  "spontaneous  de- 
cree" of  the  Holy  Father,  dated  February  21,  1905, 
the  prothonotaries  are  divided  into  partedpanti,  who 
live  in  Rome  and  perform  the  duties  of  their  office, 
and  the  "supernumeraries,"  who  are,  at  the  same  time, 
canons  of  the  three  patriarchal  basilicas  of  Rome  or 
of  other  prominent  cathedral  churches  outside  of 
Rome  or  even  of  Italy.  But  these,  ad  instar 
participuntium,  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  their 
prothonotarial  colleagues  of  Rome.  The  apostolic 
prothonotary  is,  in  fact,  a  "dignitary  of  the  Church," 
inferior,  of  course,  to  a  bishop,  since  he  is  only  a 

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THE  VATICAN 

priest,  but  enjoying  from  time  immemorial  the  pre- 
rogatives which  were  confirmed  and  regulated  by 
Pius  X.  Thus,  he  may  officiate  pontifically,  though, 
naturally,  with  less  solemnity  than  a  bishop;  he  has 
his  own  private  chapel,  is  habited  in  violet,  et  cetera. 

The  College  of  Prelate  Auditors  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Rota  is  a  tribunal  of  appeals  consisting  of 
seven  priests  appointed  by  the  Pope,  each  of  whom 
must  possess  a  doctorate  in  theology  and  canon  law. 
Formerly  its  members  belonged  to  different  Catholic 
nations,  but  they  are  now  all  Italians.  The  functions 
of  this  tribunal  have  been  greatly  modified  by  Pius  X. 

The  College  of  Prelate  Clerics  of  the  Apostolic 
Camera  is  charged  with  the  administration  of  the 
property  of  the  Holy  See.  It  is  presided  over  by  a 
cardinal  prefect,  who  is  also  known  as  the  Cardinal 
Camerlengo  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  and  whose 
duties  during  an  interregnum  are  to  convoke  the  car- 
dinals and  to  preside  over  the  Conclave  until  a  new 
Pope  is  chosen. 

The  Sacred  Apostolic  Signatura  forms  another 
tribunal,  which  passes  on  appeals  from  the  partiality 
of  an  inferior  judge  or  on  a  request  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  some  obscurity  in  the  law.  Their  deliber- 
ations used  to  be  held  in  secret,  and  each  party  was 
represented  by  a  "referendary  prelate,"  who  defended 
his  client's  interests  and  read  his  statements.  The 
sentence  of  the  tribunal  was  made  public  and  became 
operative  only  when  it  had  been  sanctioned  by  the 
Pope,  that  is,  when  his  signature  had  been  affixed  to 
the  decision.  This  tribunal,  like  so  many  other  insti- 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

tutions  in  the  organization  of  the  Vatican  of  today, 
has  been  wisely  modified  by  the  reigning  Pope.  It 
is  now  concerned  almost  solely  with  the  consideration 
of  appeals  versus  sentences  of  the  Rota.  Among 
other  changes  may  be  mentioned  the  fact  that  it  is 
now  composed  of  six  cardinals  only,  which  in  itself 
is  an  elevation  of  its  moral  and  intellectual  quality. 

The  College  of  Prelates  of  the  Great  Chamber  was 
so  called  from  the  large  room  in  which  they  met  in 
the  Palace  of  the  Chancery.  They  were  charged  with 
the  preparation  of  the  text  of  bulls  and  their  engross- 
ment on  parchment ;  but  Pius  X  has  transferred  these 
functions  to  the  apostolic  prothonotaries.  Last  come 
the  prelates  who  belong  to  no  college,  but  who  are  on 
an  equal  footing  with  their  colleagues  of  the  various 
colleges,  and  wear  the  same  violet  insignia  of  office. 
They,  too,  like  all  the  prelates  of  the  Pope's  house- 
hold, hold  office  for  life. 

The  Pontifical  Family  still  further  embraces  a  body 
of  chamberlains,  who  are  divided  into  separate  groups 
according  as  their  services  bring  them  into  more  or 
less  close  relation  with  the  person  of  the  Pope.  Thus, 
there  are  Secret,  or  Intimate  Chamberlains,  Honor- 
ary Chamberlains  and  Honorary  Chamberlains  re- 
siding outside  of  Rome — that  is  to  say,  those  who 
perform  services  near  the  Pope  and  those  who  do  not. 
The  chamberlains'  duties  are  to  be  ready  in  the  ante- 
rooms leading  to  the  reception-room  of  the  Pope,  to 
be  ready  at  his  call,  and  to  introduce  in  their  proper 
order  all  callers  who  have  letters  of  audience.  This 
body  of  chamberlains  contains  both  laymen  and  ec- 

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THE  VATICAN 

clesiastics.  The  first  are  called  noble  chamberlains, 
for  they  belong  to  the  best  families  of  the  various  na- 
tions of  the  world.  Their  full-dress  resembles  that 
of  the  French  courtiers  under  the  Valois,  with  the 
cross-hilted  sword  and  the  chain  ending  in  two  crossed 
keys.  In  undress  uniform  they  wear  a  black  frock 
coat  and  the  chain.  The  ecclesiastics  wear  a  violet- 
colored  cassock  and  a  long  cloak  of  the  same  color. 
Most  of  these  clerical  chamberlains  do  not  live  in 
Rome,  but  are  scattered  over  the  globe  in  different 
dioceses,  and  they  hold  their  positions  only  during 
the  reign  of  the  Pope  who  appointed  them.  Those 
of  their  number  who  are  on  duty  at  Rome  are  called 
participanti  and  their  foreign  colleagues  are  called 
"supernumeraries."  These  latter  are  under  the  or- 
ders of  the  Master  of  the  Apostolic  Camera,  a  mon- 
signor,  who  assigns  them  their  duties. 

The  military  establishment  of  the  Vatican  consists 
of  the  Noble  Guard,  the  Swiss  Guard,  the  Palatine 
Guard,  and  the  gendarmes.  The  members  of  the 
Noble  Guard  take  rank  after  the  body  of  prelates 
and  the  officers  of  the  other  three  corps  after  the 
chamberlains.  The  Noble  Guard  is  composed  of 
about  seventy  officers  who  are  members  of  titled 
families  in  Rome  and  the  Italian  provinces.  Before 
the  unification  of  Italy,  when  they  galloped  through 
the  streets  of  the  Eternal  City,  clad  in  their  beautiful 
uniforms,  they  were  the  admiration  of  the  populace; 
and  today  when  on  occasions  of  great  ceremony  at 
St.  Peter's  the  measured  melody  of  their  silver  trum- 
pets is  wafted  down  from  the  heights  of  the  cupola, 

16 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

the  crowd  below  is  thrilled  with  enthusiasm.  The 
sole  duty  of  the  Noble  Guard  is  to  protect  the  person 
of  His  Holiness — to  act  as  his  body  guard,  and  their 
service  does  not  cease  with  the  death  of  the  Pontiff, 
but  continues  until  he  is  buried.  They  do  not  reside 
in  the  palace. 

The  Swiss  Guard  is  really  composed  of  Swiss,  who 
are  recruited  in  the  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland. 
This  body  was  organized  by  Pope  Julius  II,  who 
was  Bishop  of  Lausanne,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  soldiers  enlist  for  five  years, 
after  which  they  return  to  Switzerland  with  a  little 
sum  saved  from  their  pay.  They  number  eighty,  and 
are  reengaged  on  the  advent  of  a  new  Pontiff,  the 
occasion  of  the  curious  little  scene  which  has  given 
birth  to  the  proverb,  "No  money,  no  Swiss."  The 
last  time  it  was  enacted  was  on  the  death  of  Leo  XIII. 
Scarcely  had  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  breathed  his  last, 
when  the  Swiss  Guard  formed  in  line,  under  the  com- 
mand of  their  officers,  and  marched  off,  their  heavy 
and  jerky  step  resounding  through  the  lugubrious 
solitude  of  the  Vatican.  While  they  were  descending 
the  steps,  the  Cardinal  Camerlengo,  as  Governor  of 
the  Palace,  called  out  to  them  from  the  top  of  the 
landing: 

"Where  are  you  going?" 

"We  are  going  home.     Our  master  is  dead." 

"No,  stay!" 

"Who  will  pay  us?" 

"I,  the  Cardinal  Camerlengo." 

Thereupon,  back  they  came  to  their  old  posts. 

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THE  VATICAN 

The  Palatine  Guard  of  Honor  do  not  live  in  the 
palace,  but  come  there  to  perform  their  duties  at  great 
religious  ceremonies  or  at  the  reception  of  a  sovereign. 
They  are  three  hundred  in  number,  and  belong  for 
the  most  part  to  the  humbler  families  of  Rome — small 
shop-keepers,  artisans,  et  cetera,  "the  poor  but  hon- 
est," as  the  phrase  goes.  This  body  springs  from  the 
old  capotori,  a  sort  of  city  militia. 

The  gendarmes  number  one  hundred  and  twenty 
and  are  lodged  at  the  Vatican  with  their  families. 
Their  duties  are  to  guard  its  numerous  halls  and  cor- 
ridors, and  they  are  most  efficient,  as  the  numerous 
visitors  to  the  Vatican  can  testify.  They  are  espe- 
cially useful  in  directing  the  visitor,  who  so  often  loses 
his  way  in  this  modern  labyrinth. 

The  Pontifical  Family  further  includes:  the  Mas- 
ter of  Ceremonies;  the  Honorary  Private,  or  Inti- 
mate, Chaplains,  and  their  honorary  non-resident 
colleagues;  the  Private  Clerks;  the  College  of  Ordi- 
nary Chaplains,  who  take  the  part  of  altar-boys  at 
the  religious  services;  the  Apostolic  Preacher,  who 
is  always  a  Capuchin  and  preaches  the  Advent  and 
Lenten  sermons  in  the  presence  of  the  Pope,  who 
listens  in  a  screened  tribune,  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  cardinals  and  the  court;  the  Confessor  of 
the  Pontifical  Family;  the  Assistant  Sacristan  of  the 
Apostolic  Palaces;  the  Pope's  physicians;  the  head 
valet ;  the  butler  and  the  lower  domestics. 

The  foreign  spectator  stands  amazed  before  the 
variety  of  the  costumes  of  the  Pontifical  Family  on 
ceremonial  occasions.  The  happy  mingling  of  diff er- 

18 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

ent  colors  is  especially  beautiful.  Red,  violet,  white, 
yellow,  black,  combined  with  lace  and  gold  and  silver 
embroideries,  form  a  most  picturesque,  vivid  and  ar- 
tistic ensemble,  which  is  not  surprising,  however, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  it  was  Michaelangelo  who 
planned  the  color  scheme  and  who  designed  the  cos- 
tumes, most  of  which  are  very  ancient,  though  some- 
what modernized  by  the  order  of  Pope  Leo  X. 

The  personages  who  have  a  rank  in  the  Pontifical 
Chapel  and  who,  in  the  great  Church  ceremonies, 
surround  the  throne  of  the  Pontiff  rather  than  that 
of  the  sovereign,  are,  in  the  first  place,  almost  all 
those  who  make  up  the  Pontifical  Family.  The 
Pontifical  Chapel,  therefore,  comprises  in  order;  of 
precedence : 

The  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals;  the  College  of 
Patriarchal  Archbishops  and  Bishops  Assisting  at 
the  Throne ;  the  Vice-Camerlengo  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church;  the  Princes  Assisting  at  the  Throne  (Prince 
Colonna  and  Prince  Orsini) ,  who  stand  on  either  side 
of  His  Holiness ;  the  Auditor  of  the  Reverend  Apos- 
tolic Camera;  the  General  Treasurer  of  the  same 
office;  the  Majordomo  of  His  Holiness;  the  Minister 
of  the  Interior  (a  post  left  vacant  as  a  silent  protest 
against  the  usurpation  on  the  part  of  the  Italian 
government  of  the  Pope's  temporal  power)  ;  the  Arch- 
bishops and  Bishops;  the  Apostolic  Prothonotarial 
Prelates ;  the  Commendatore  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who 
was  fomerly  director  of  the  immense  Hospital  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  at  Transtevere;  the  Regent  of  the 
Chancery;  the  Abbot  nullius  of  the  Monte  Cassino 

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and  the  other  Abbots  nullius,  that  is  to  say,  Abbots 
under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope;  the  Abbots 
General  of  the  Regular  Orders;  the  Generals  and 
Vicars- General  of  the  Mendicant  Orders;  the  Chief 
Magistrate  of  Rome  (now  vacant,  under  the  old 
order  the  office  of  the  Mayor  of  the  Eternal  City) ; 
the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Hospital  (Prince  Ruspoli) ; 
the  Auditor  Prelates  of  the  Sacred  Rota;  the  Master 
of  the  Sacred  Palace;  the  Prelates  Clerks  of  the 
Apostolic  Camera;  the  Voting  and  Referendary 
Prelates  of  the  Signatura  (a  tribunal,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained, now  composed  of  cardinals  whose  members, 
consequently,  no  longer  sit  among  the  prelates) ;  the 
Abbreviators  Prelates  of  the  Great  Chamber,  who, 
as  has  also  been  explained,  are  now  joined  with  the 
prothonotaries ;  the  Ministers  Assisting  at  the  Altar; 
the  Associate  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  in  the 
absence  of  the  prelate;  the  College  of  Masters  of 
Ceremonies;  the  Private  and  Honorary  Lay  and 
Clerical  Chamberlains;  the  College  of  Consistorial 
Advocates;  the  Private  and  Honorary  Chaplains; 
the  Aids  of  the  Camera;  the  Procurators-General 
of  the  Mendicant  Orders;  the  Apostolic  Preacher; 
the  Confessor  of  the  Pontifical  Family;  the  College 
of  Procurators  and  Attorneys  of  the  Sacred  Apos- 
tolic Palaces. 

The  ministers  assisting  at  the  sacred  ceremonies, 
where  they  fill  their  varied  functions,  are: 

The  Sacristan  of  His  Holiness,  the  Canons  of  the 
three  patriarchal  basilicas,  who  act  respectively  as 
assistant  priest,  deacon  and  sub-deacon  at  Masses 

20 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

said  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel ;  the  Choir  of  His  Holi- 
ness, under  the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Monsignor 
Perosi ;  the  Assistant  Sacristan  of  His  Holiness ;  the 
Acolytes,  Thurifers  and  Ordinary  Chaplains;  the 
Clerks  of  the  Chapel ;  the  Master-Bearers  of  the  Red 
Rod,  so  named  from  the  sticks  which  they  hold  in 
their  hands;  the  Keeper  of  the  Tiaras;  the  Mace- 
Bearers,  who  are  almost  all  goldsmiths  of  Rome 
(Raphael  and  Benvenuto  Cellini  were  Pontifical 
mace-bearers  and  the  mace  which  the  latter  modeled 
and  engraved  for  his  own  use  is  still  preserved)  ;  the 
apostolic  messengers  and  ushers. 

It  should  be  explained  that  very  few  of  this  long 
list  of  persons  live  in  the  Vatican.  They  come  there 
only  for  the  ceremonies.  The  principal  personages, 
cardinals,  bishops  and  prelates,  assemble  in  order  to 
put  on  their  robes  in  a  large  room  called  the  robing 
hall,  which  is  near  the  small  vestry  where  the  Holy 
Father  robes  himself,  and  where  all  preparations  are 
made  for  the  most  striking  spectacle  that  can  be 
imagined. 

The  great  assembly  in  the  cathedral  which  awaits 
the  arrival  of  the  Holy  Father  is  one  of  the  most 
august  in  the  whole  world,  composed,  as  it  is,  of  men 
of  distinction  of  such  varied  kinds, — former  nuncios, 
diplomats  who  have  treated  the  gravest  affairs  with 
skill  and  success;  learned  theologians,  canonists  and 
historians ;  bishops  who  are  surrounded  by  a  thousand 
difficulties  and  who  come  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe ;  men  of  wide  experience  and  skill  in  the  science 
of  government ;  representatives  of  the  most  illustrious 

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houses  of  Europe  among  the  lay  chamberlains.  All 
these  personages  stand  chatting  together  in  the 
friendliest  manner,  when  suddenly  the  little  door 
which  leads  into  the  private  vestry  of  His  Holiness 
opens.  The  commander  of  the  Noble  Guard  ad- 
vances and  makes  a  little  sign  with  the  ebony  cane 
which  he  holds  in  his  hand;  the  subdued  conversation 
immediately  ceases  and  every  eye  is  turned  towards 
the  door  where  the  Pope  appears,  smiling,  arrayed  in 
his  magnificent  robes,  his  hand  raised  to  bless  the  as- 
semblage, which  straightway  kneels,  except  the  car- 
dinals, who  only  bow  profoundly.  Every  heart  is 
moved;  and  all  the  great  of  the  earth  incline  before 
the  successor  of  Peter,  the  humble  fisherman  of  Gali- 
lee, before  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  the 
appearance  of  authority  and  paternity  in  its  divine 
expression. 

The  vast  number  of  employes  of  different  sorts 
of  work  at  the  Vatican  necessitates  a  special  adminis- 
tration in  order  that  every  thing  may  move  smoothly 
and  regularly.  There  exists,  therefore,  a  Prefecture 
of  the  Sacred  Apostolic  Palaces,  at  whose  head 
stands,  with  the  title  of  prefect,  Cardinal  Merry  del 
Val,  Secretary  of  State  of  His  Holiness,  assisted  by 
a  sub-prefect,  who  is  at  present  Monsignor  Miscia- 
telli,  one  of  the  most  amiable  representatives  of  the 
Italian  nobility.  Next  comes  the  Master  of  the 
Horse  of  His  Holiness,  charged  with  the  supervision 
of  the  cavalry,  which  is  much  reduced  today  on  ac- 
count of  the  economies  introduced  by  Pius  X  and  his 
two  august  predecessors.  The  Noble  Guard  now 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

possesses  but  a  few  horses  with  which  to  accompany 
the  Holy  Father  on  his  drives  through  the  Vatican 
Gardens.  In  addition,  there  are  a  few  horses  for  the 
use  of  the  secretary  of  state  and  the  higher  prelates. 
The  state  coaches  of  the  Holy  Father,  several  of  them 
gifts  from  crowned  heads,  stand  idle  in  the  stables, 
from  lack  of  horses  to  draw  them.  At  present,  they 
serve  simply  as  an  additional  attraction  for  foreign 
sight-seers,  though  it  is  hoped  that  the  day  may  come 
when  they  may  be  given  their  proper  use. 

The  administration  of  the  Sacred  Apostolic  Pal- 
aces comprises  furthermore: 

The  Master  of  the  House,  Maestro  di  Casa;  the 
Secretary  of  the  Prefecture  and  the  Majordomoship; 
the  Auditor  of  Accounts;  the  Chief  Book-keeper;  the 
Architect  of  the  Apostolic  Palaces;  the  Provisional 
Regent  of  the  Apostolic  Hot-Houses,  whose  duties 
it  is,  with  the  aid  of  florists  and  upholsterers,  to  dec- 
orate the  rooms  and  chapels  for  festivals  of  all  kinds ; 
the  Assistant  Regent  of  the  Apostolic  Hot-Houses; 
the  Legal  Adviser,  who  is  always  a  distinguished 
lawyer ;  the  Solicitor,  always  an  advocate ;  the  General 
Director  of  the  Pontifical  Museums  and  Galleries, 
who  is  aided  by  a  sub-director,  a  secretary  and  a  corps 
of  special  directors — an  artist  of  repute  in  charge  of 
the  department  of  paintings,  the  Archeologist  of  the 
Pontifical  Museums  and  Galleries  for  the  Egyptian 
and  the  Christian  Museums,  and  the  director  of  the 
Etruscan  Museum.  The  last  two  are  required  to  be 
able  scholars.  Finally,  there  is  the  Chief  of  the 
Guardians  of  the  Museums  and  Galleries.  There  is 
s  23 


THE  VATICAN 

also  a  group  of  officers  who  manage  the  interior  af- 
fairs of  the  Vatican.  Here  belong  the  Director  of 
Hygiene,  a  physician ;  the  Attaches  of  the  Tribunal  of 
the  Prefecture,  an  examining  magistrate  and  his  chan- 
cellor ;  and  the  Police  Delegate,  who  is  the  captain  of 
the  gendarmes. 

The  Vatican  Library  is  under  the  direction  of  an 
officer  styled  Cardinal  Protector,  who  has  under  him 
the  prefect  or  custodian  of  the  library,  a  secretary, 
writers  for  the  Oriental,  Greek  and  Latin  languages, 
and  several  other  assistants.  The  Christian  and  Pro- 
fane Museums  and  the  Numismatic  Cabinet  are  also 
under  the  control  of  the  Cardinal  Protector.  The 
Vatican  Archives  are,  if  not  the  richest,  at  least  one 
of  the  richest  collections  in  the  world  and  are  open  to 
scholars  from  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  To  see  the 
more  recent  Archives,  however,  a  special  permit  is 
necessary.  The  Prefect  of  the  Archives  is  a  cardinal 
who  is  aided  by  an  assistant  archivist  and  several  other 
assistants.  Leo  XIII  established  in  connection  with 
the  Archives  a  chair  of  paleography. 

The  Vatican  Observatory  was  made  famous  by  the 
work  of  Father  Secchi,  whose  observations  of  the  sun 
are  so  widely  known.  It  is  now  under  the  manage- 
ment of  astronomers  who  are  highly  appreciated  in  the 
scientific  world  and  has  a  director,  a  sub-director  and 
several  assistants. 

There  is  also  a  Vatican  Printing  Office,  with  a  di- 
rector, and  so  forth.  Two  or  three  years  ago  it  was 
renovated  in  every  way  and  is  now  a  model  establish- 
ment. 

24 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  VATICAN 

And,  finally,  in  order  to  complete  this  review,  the 
government  of  the  sacred  palaces  comprises,  still 
further,  the  Prelatical  Commissions,  who  decide  con- 
troversies and  differences  which  may  arise  in  the 
palatine  administration.  These  commissions  exercise 
the  three  degrees  of  jurisdiction,  its  members  being 
judges  of  first  instance,  judges  of  appeal  and  supreme 
judges.  The  three  commissions  are  united  for  this 
third  duty.  The  members  of  these  commissions  are 
all  prelates,  eminent  jurists,  who  are  judges  in  dif- 
ferent ecclesiastical  tribunals. 

This  hasty  glance  at  the  Vatican  Palaces,  their  or- 
ganization and  administration,  shows  clearly  the  real 
spirit  of  the  Church,  so  practical  and  prudent  in  re- 
spect to  all  that  she  undertakes  and  manages.  The 
diverse  posts  which  have  just  been  enumerated,  are  all 
very  ancient,  and  exactly  meet  the  requirement  of  the 
situation.  Far  from  multiplying  their  number  and 
rendering  them  more  complex,  recent  Popes  have 
wisely  striven  to  reduce  their  number  and  to  simplify 
their  functions  and  modes  of  operation.  In  our  own 
day,  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X  have  brought  them  down 
to  what  is  strictly  necessary,  majdng  it  a  point  to  keep 
the  outlay  within  the  revenues  of  the  Church.  Con- 
sequently, the  Holy  See  has  no  floating  debt,  that 
plague  of  the  modern  state.  But  it  is  hardly  to  be 
expected  that  this  fine  example  of  public  economy  will 
be  followed  by  the  nations  of  today,  at  least  for  a  long 
time  to  come. 

This  chapter  has  described  the  stage  upon  which 
the  life  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  moves.  The  follow- 

25 


THE  VATICAN 

ing  chapter  will  take  up  the  study  of  the  beloved 
person  of  His  Holiness,  Pius  X,  as  a  Christian,  as 
a  devoted  son,  as  head  of  the  Church  and  providential 
Pope,  as  a  father  in  his  private  life,  so  simple,  and  in 
his  personal  labors,  so  untiring. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  POPE 

The  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church — The  Doctrine  of  Papal  In- 
fallibility— The  Election  of  the  Pontiff— The  Church  as  a 
Perfect  Society — The  Pontifical  Orders — The  Life  of 
Pius  X — His  Innumerable  Occupations. 

THE  Pope!  Every  Catholic,  even  to  the  farthest 
corner  of  the  earth,  is  deeply  moved  at  the  very  sound 
of  that  word.  It  is  because  the  Pope  is  the  common 
father  of  all  the  faithful,  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and,  as  Christ  Himself  once  was,  visible  to  all  eyes. 
He  has  entire  authority  to  teach  us  the  truth  which 
has  been  revealed  to  the  Church  and  to  direct  our  con- 
sciences; and,  as  an  absolute  consequence  of  that  su- 
preme authority  which  is  accountable  only  to  God,  he 
is  infallible  when  he  is  officially  exercising  the  duties 
of  pastor  and  teacher  of  all  Christians.  What  an  ab- 
surd contradiction  would  exist,  indeed,  between  the 
obedience  which  we  owe  him,  and  which  is  prescribed 
by  the  Divine  Saviour  Himself,  and  the  possibility 
of  our  being  deceived  by  his  teaching.  "Thou  art 
Peter;  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  church, 
and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it." 
(St.  Matthew  16:18.)  "Feed  my  lambs.  Feed  my 
sheep,"  that  is  to  say,  the  ordinary  believers  and  the 

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bishops  (St.  John  21:16-17).  And  speaking  to  St. 
Peter,  the  Divine  Saviour  adds:  "And  thou,  being 
once  converted"  (the  allusion  is  to  the  Apostle's  fall 
during  the  Passion)  "confirm  thy  brethren"  (St. 
Luke  22:32)  ;  that  is,  strengthen  them  in  the  Faith. 

Here  indeed  is  the  summary  of  the  doctrine  promul- 
gated by  the  Council  of  the  Vatican  concerning  the 
Papal  authority  in  the  de  Ecclesia  Christi,  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  Church  of  Christ,  Session  IV,  July  18, 
1870: 

1.  The  Pope  is  the  head  of  all  the  Church,  the 
father  and  teacher  of  all  Christians :  Jesus  Christ  has 
entrusted  to  him  full  power  to  govern  the  Universal 
Church. 

2.  His  power  is  immediate  and  binds  all,  pastors 
and  laymen,  to  hierarchical  subordination  and  to  true 
obedience  as  regards  faith  and  behavior,  discipline 
and  the  government  of  the  Church,  with  the  object  of 
maintaining  unity  of  communion  and  of  profession  of 
faith. 

3.  His  power,  far  from  being  prejudicial  to  the 
ordinary  and  immediate  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  recog- 
nizes and  confirms  their  authority. 

4.  From  this  primacy  arises  the  right  to  freely 
correspond  with  the  pastors  and  faithful,  to  instruct 
them  and  direct  them;  no  human  power  can  justly 
oppose  this  right,  or  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
state  the  execution  of  measures  prescribed  by  the  Holy 
See. 

5.  As  head  of  the  Church,  the  Pope  is  also  sover- 
eign judge  in  ecclesiastical  matters;  all  may  appeal 

28 


THE  POPE 

to  him,   and  none   can  revise  or  annul  his   judg- 
ment. 

The  same  council  thus  defines  Papal  infallibility: 

"Faithfully  adhering,  therefore,  to  the  tradition  inherited 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Faith,  we,  with  the 
approbation  of  the  sacred  council,  for  the  glory  of  God  our 
Saviour,  for  the  exaltation  of  the  Catholic  religion  and  the 
salvation  of  Christian  peoples,  teach  and  define,  as  a 
Divinely  revealed  dogma,  that  the  Roman  Pontiff,  when  he 
speaks  ex  cathedra,  that  is,  when  he,  in  the  exercise  of  his 
office  as  Shepherd  and  Teacher  of  all  Christians,  by  virtue 
of  his  supreme  apostolic  authority,  decides  that  a  doctrine 
concerning  faith  or  morals  is  to  be  held  by  the  entire  Church, 
he  possesses,  in  consequence  of  the  Divine  aid  promised  him 
in  St.  Peter,  that  infallibility  with  which  the  Divine  Saviour 
wished  to  have  His  Church  furnished  for  the  definition  of 
doctrine  concerning  faith  or  morals ;  and  that  such  definitions 
of  the  Roman  Pontiff  are  of  themselves,  and  not  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Church's  consent,  irreformable." 

This  definition  of  the  doctrine  of  infallibility 
seemed  to  many  lay  persons  an  attempt  to  subordi- 
nate civil  society  to  religious  society.  So  soon  as  the 
proposed  decree  was  announced,  the  French  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
cabinets  of  Vienna  and  Berlin  and  requested  that  a 
special  extraordinary  ambassador  be  admitted  to  the 
council  "to  demonstrate  what  uneasiness  might  be 
aroused  in  public  by  the  adoption  of  maxims  which 
would  prejudice  the  rights  of  nations."  (Telegram, 
February  20,  1870.)  The  Secretary  of  State,  Car- 
dinal Antonelli,  replied  on  March  19 : 

29 


THE  VATICAN 

"If  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  embraces  all  that  is 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  integrity  of  the  faith, 
no  prejudice  can  arise  therefrom  either  for  science,  history, 
or  politics.  .  .  .  The  Church,  inculcating  in  her  children 
the  principle  of  rendering  to  God  that  which  is  due  to  God, 
and  to  Caesar  that  which  is  due  to  Caesar,  at  the  same  time 
lays  upon  them  the  obligation  to  obey  conscientiously  the 
authority  of  princes.  But  the  latter  must  also  recognize 
that  if  laws  contrary  to  eternal  justice  are  enacted  anywhere, 
obedience  to  such  decrees  would  not  be  rendering  to  Caesar 
that  which  is  due  to  Caesar,  but  depriving  God  of  that  which 
belongs  to  God.  .  .  ." 

After  the  Council,  Pius  IX  had  occasion  to  declare 
to  a  deputation,  on  July  20,  1871,  that  the  right  of 
deposing  sovereigns  and  of  freeing  subjects  from  their 
oath  of  fidelity  and  allegiance,  has  nothing  in  common 
with  Pontifical  infallibility,  but  arises  out  of  a  public 
right  "formerly  in  vigor."  Indeed,  in  the  hierarchy 
of  the  civil  sovereignties  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  Pope 
occupied  the  first  place  above  all  other  emperors  and 
kings,  who,  for  the  greater  part,  had  themselves  re- 
quested such  suzerainty  and  had  willingly  submitted 
to  it. 

Pius  IX  in  his  Brief  of  November  27,  1871,  to  the 
Swiss  bishops  also  said: 

"The  council  does  not  attribute  any  new  power  to  the 
Pope.  .  .  .  The  definition  [of  infallibility]  is  a  simple  expla- 
nation of  an  ancient  dogma.  .  .  .  Things  are  in  the  same 
state  as  heretofore.  .  .  .  Nothing  is  altered  in  the  relations 
of  the  head  of  the  Church.  .  .  ." 

The  election  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  interests  the 

30 


THE  POPE 

whole  world,  and  it  is  regulated  unto  the  smallest  de- 
tail by  the  Pontifical  constitutions.  It  is  effected  to- 
day by  cardinals  only,  gathered  together  in  a  Con- 
clave. 

In  1179  at  the  third  Lateran  Council,  Alexander 
III  decided  that  the  person  elected  must  obtain  at 
least  two-thirds  of  the  votes  of  the  cardinals  then  pres- 
ent. In  1247,  at  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons,  Greg- 
ory X  instituted  the  Conclave,  which  places  the 
cardinals  under  obligation  to  keep  rigorously  within 
the  building,  and  to  abstain  from  all  communication 
with  the  outer  world,  during  the  election.  In  1311, 
at  the  Council  of  Vienne,  Clement  V  decided  that  ex- 
communicated cardinals,  those  who  were  under  sen- 
tence of  interdiction  or  suspension,  should  partici- 
pate in  the  election  in  the  same  manner  as  the  others, 
and  that  no  contest  should  be  made  afterwards. 
Julius  I,  by  the  Constitution  of  January  14, 1505,  and 
Paul  IV,  in  1553,  enacted  penalties  against  cardinals 
who  should  seek  by  bribery  to  obtain  the  succession  to 
the  defunct  Pope.  Pius  IV,  by  the  Constitution  of 
October  9,  1502,  made  a  regulation  concerning  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Church  during  the  vacancy  of  the 
See.  Finally,  Gregory  XV  by  the  Constitution 
Aeterni  patris  filius,  of  November  25,  1621,  and  by 
the  regulation  of  April  2,  1622,  determined  the  pres- 
ent ceremony.  Urban  VI  completed  it  by  the  Con- 
stitution of  February  15,  1625,  and  Clement  XII 
rendered  it  still  more  perfect  by  a  Bull  of  October  11, 
1732. 

The  electoral  corps  includes  all  the  cardinals  pres- 

31 


THE  VATICAN 

ent  in  Rome  on  the  day  on  which  the  Conclave  opens, 
the  eleventh  day  of  the  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See,  un- 
less they  send  an  excuse  on  the  plea  of  ill  health. 
Foreign  or  absent  cardinals  cannot  send  representa- 
tives to  replace  them,  but  they  may  enter  even  after 
the  opening  of  the  Conclave.  No  one  can  leave  with- 
out the  special  order  of  a  physician,  and  under  oath  of 
secrecy. 

Everyone  is  eligible  with  the  exception  of  simoni- 
acs  and  heresiarchs.  Nowhere  is  it  written  that  the 
Pope  must  be  a  cardinal.  Urban  IV,  1261-1264, 
B.  Gregory  X,  1271-1276,  S.  Celestine  V,  1292-1294, 
B.  Urban  V,  1362-1370,  Urban  VI,  1378-1389,  were 
not  cardinals.  Neither  is  it  written  anywhere  that 
the  Pope  must  be  an  Italian,  though  at  the  Conclave 
held  in  1458,  at  which  Pius  II  had  for  competitor  the 
Frenchman  D'Estouteville,  "all  Italians,"  according 
to  the  declaration  of  the  Florentines  to  the  papal  en- 
voy, "trembled  lest  the  tiara  should  pass  to  those  from 
over  the  mountains,  to  the  great  detriment  and  dis- 
honor of  Italy."  Several  Frenchmen  have  become 
Popes:  Sylvester  II,  999-1003,  Urban  II,  1088-1099, 
Urban  IV,  1261-1264,  Clement  IV,  1265-1268,  Mar- 
tin IV,  1281-1285;  an  Englishman,  Hadrian  IV, 
1154-1159;  Germans,  Gregory  V,  996-999,  S.  Leo 
IX,  1049-1054,  and  one  Portuguese,  John  XXI, 
1276-1277. 

The  election  is  effected,  either  by  inspiration,,  when 
upon  the  nomination  of  a  candidate,  all  the  electors 
accept  him  by  acclamation;  or  by  compromise,  when 
the  Conclave  unanimously  entrusts  to  a  committee 

32 


THE  POPE 

composed  of  an  uneven  number  of  members,  the  duty 
of  nominating  the  Pope  by  a  majority  of  votes;  or 
by  ballots,  which  is  the  most  usual  method.  In  this 
case  the  Conclave  votes  twice  each  day  by  secret  bal- 
lot, until  one  candidate  has  obtained  two-thirds  of 
the  entire  number  of  votes.  As  soon  as  the  Pope- 
elect  has  recognized  his  election,  he  becomes  the  Sov- 
ereign Pontiff.  He  receives  the  pallium  and  crown 
and  takes  solemn  possession  of  the  Lateran  Church. 

By  virtue  of  a  tradition  dating  back  to  the  sixteenth 
century,  Austria,  Spain,  France  and  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  while  remaining  Catholic  powers,  claim  the 
privilege  of  each  indicating  to  the  Conclave  a  candi- 
date who  would  not  be  agreeable  to  them.  But  this 
was  not  a  real  right,  and  the  best  canonists  have  al- 
ways taught  that  the  veto  did  not  in  any  way  bind 
the  Conclave  which  might  very  well  disregard  it,  with- 
out vitiating  the  election. 

The  Catholic  Church  is  a  perfect  monarchy  and 
society.  It  is  a  perfect  society  because,  as  Leo  XIII 
says  in  the  Encyclical  Immortale  Dei,  of  November  1, 
1885,  "by  the  express  will  and  by  the  grace  of  her 
Founder  she  possesses  in  herself  and  by  herself  all  the 
resources  which  are  needful  to  her  action."  This  doc- 
trine, often  enunciated  by  Pius  IX,  notably  in  the 
Allocutions  Singulari  quidem  of  December  9,  1854, 
Multis  gravibusque  of  December  17,  1860,  and  Maxi- 
ma quidem  of  June  9,  1862,  appears  in  the  twenty- 
ninth  proposition  of  the  Syllabus. 

The  very  fact  that  the  Catholic  Church  is  a  per- 
fect society  constitutes  her  also  a  juridical  society, 

33 


THE  VATICAN 

meaning  thereby  that  she  has  the  right  in  herself,  and 
not  as  a  state  concession,  to  make  laws  and  organize 
her  life  as  she  sees  fit.  This  indicates  that  this  power 
of  hers  is  not,  as  Portalis  affirmed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  "rather  a  mere  ministry  than 
a  properly  so-called  jurisdiction.  .  .  ."  Pius  VI  con- 
demned this  error  by  the  Bull  Auctorem  fidei  of 
August  28,  1794,  and  Leo  XIII  repeated  in  the  en- 
cyclical Immortale  Dei  that  "Jesus  Christ  has  truly 
given  to  His  Apostles  commands  relating  to  holy 
things,  and  has  added  the  power  to  promulgate  laws 
properly  so  called,  as  well  as  to  judge  and  punish 
transgressors  of  those  laws." 

Therefore,  the  Church  possesses  judiciary  power, 
that  is  to  say,  the  right  of  instituting  special  tribunals 
competent  in  all  matters  concerning  faith  and  behav- 
ior, whose  decisions  are  applicable  without  placet  or 
veto  imposed  or  opposed  by  civil  authority.  The  civil 
authority  has  often  put  forward  such  pretensions,  but 
the  Church  has  always  protested  and  maintained  her 
right.  As  a  perfect  society  she  has,  of  course,  also 
the  right  of  property  and  of  free  choice  of  her  min- 
isters, insomuch  that  laymen  cannot  interfere  except 
in  virtue  of  Papal  concession  or  legitimate  custom. 

Nor  can  we  refuse  to  admit  that  the  Holy  See  has 
the  right  of  free  communication  either  with  bishops 
or  with  lay-people.  In  France  under  the  ancient 
monarchy,  as  since,  under  the  Organic  Articles,  the 
civil  power  insisted  that  such  communication  be  made 
through  its  intermediary;  hence  the  registration  of 
bulls  by  the  Council  of  State.  Rome  tolerated  this 

34 


THE  POPE 

state  of  things,  but  never  admitted  its  justice.  And 
the  famous  Organic  Articles,  added  by  the  state  alone 
to  the  Concordat  of  1802,  never  had  the  approbation 
of  ecclesiastical  authority,  which  only  tacitly  tolerated 
some  of  them  for  the  sake  of  peace — as,  for  instance, 
the  obligation  of  civil  marriage  before  the  celebration 
of  religious  marriage. 

The  right  of  free  intercourse  has  been  well  stated 
in  a  letter  written  to  the  Spanish  nunciature  on  March 
13,  1885,  by  Leo  XIIFs  under-secretary  of  state: 

"The  Council  of  the  Vatican  declares  that  the  Roman 
Pontiff  has  the  free  right  of  intercourse  with  the  pastors  and 
faithful  members  of  the  Roman  Church,  .  .  .  that  all  who 
say  it  is  lawful  to  hinder  such  intercourse  must  be  reprobated 
and  condemned.  .  .  ." 

.These  declarations  give  us  the  right  to  conclude  that 
it  is  forbidden  to  all,  without  distinction,  to  hinder  the 
Holy  See  from  treating  directly  with  the  faithful  or 
from  defining  all  things  that  may  affect  their  religious 
interests.  It  is  clear  also  that  this  right  of  the  Holy 
See  would  be  vain  if,  in  the  government  of  their  dio- 
ceses, the  bishops  were  not  obliged  strictly  to  conform 
to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Holy  See,  or  if  they  could 
act  in  a  manner  other  than  that  which  is  prescribed. 

That  the  Catholic  Church  is  an  absolute  monarchy 
is  plainly  shown  by  her  institution  and  her  history. 
Her  Divine  Founder  gave  her  only  one  head,  St. 
Peter,  who  was  recognized  as  such  by  the  other  Apos- 
tles from  the  very  time  of  the  death  and  the  ascension 
of  our  Lord.  One  has  only  to  read  the  Acts  of  the 

56* 


THE  VATICAN 

Apostles  to  realize  this.  After  the  death  of  St.  Peter, 
history  shows  us  his  successors  governing  the  Church 
alone,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  successors  of  the  other 
Apostles.  The  See  of  Rome  immediately  became  the 
center  of  Christendom.  Roma  locuta  est,  causa  finita 
est,  "Rome  has  spoken,  the  case  is  closed,"  used  to  be 
the  saying  during  the  first  centuries.  Again,  Ubi 
Petrus,  ibi  Ecclesia,  "Where  Peter  is,  there  is  the 
Church." 

The  Church  has  always  been  an  absolute  monarchy 
and  in  the  most  troublous  times  no  parliament  of  any 
sort  sat  with  the  Pope,  and  imposed  laws  upon  him, 
as  in  our  constitutional  monarchies.  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  Pope  acts  and  speaks,  even  ex  cathedra, 
without  consulting  anybody.  On  the  contrary,  he 
surrounds  himself  with  cardinals,  theologians,  histori- 
ans, exegetes,  jurists,  scholars  of  all  sorts,  and  he  is  in 
constant  communication  with  his  bishops  and  person- 
ages who  are  most  eminent  throughout  the  world. 
He  is  thoroughly  enlightened  on  all  matters  of  doc- 
trine, morality  and  government.  Supreme  decisions 
can  only  come  from  him;  it  is  his  word  which  Catho- 
lics throughout  the  world  await  and  listen  to  with 
respect  and  submission.  This  obedience  they  yield 
to  no  one  else ;  thus  are  they  certain  of  not  being  de- 
ceived and  of  following  as  faithful  sheep  the  word  of 
their  Divine  Master  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 

At  different  periods  in  history,  ecclesiastical  authors 
have  been  known  to  teach  that  the  cardinals  were  the 
delegates  of  the  Universal  Church  forming  a  sort  of 
senate  acting  with  the  Pope ;  that  the  bishops  gathered 

36 


THE  POPE 

in  general  council  had  an  authority  superior  to  that 
of  the  Pope.  Governments  have  sometimes  for  in- 
terested motives  maintained  these  unfounded  theories 
and  even  attempted  in  this  manner  to  create  a  schism, 
such  as  Gallicanism,  with  its  four  articles,  under 
Louis  XIV  in  France.  Nevertheless,  such  a  genius 
as  Bossuet,  after  trying,  courtier-like,  to  justify  these 
errors  in  a  large  folio  volume,  declares  at  the  end,  re- 
penting: Abeat  quolibet  voluerit  questio!  "May 
the  question  go  to  the  devil!"  And  he  wrote  on  the 
unity  of  the  Church  and  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Pope  a  discourse  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  science, 
faith  and  common  sense. 

What  remains  today  of  all  those  attempts  to  di- 
minish the  absolute  authority  of  the  Pope?  Simply 
nothing.  Never  have  cardinals,  bishops  and  the  faith- 
ful been  more  united  around  the  See  of  Peter; 
and  the  Universal  Church,  in  the  Vatican  Council, 
replied  to  Gallicanism  and  to  all  heretics  by  proclaim- 
ing the  doctrine  of  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope. 

This  supreme  sovereignty  of  souls  places  the  Pope, 
in  spite  of  everything,  in  the  first  rank  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  world.  Though  deprived  of  his  temporal  power, 
he  is  the  most  powerful  among  sovereigns;  for  his 
word  is  met  with  absolute  obedience  without  the  aid 
of  the  bayonet.  The  united  efforts  of  the  adversaries 
of  Catholicism  and  of  all  religions  cannot  reduce  him, 
even  outwardly,  to  the  status  of  a  mere  private 
individual.  Therefore,  all  governments,  except  the 
atheistic  government  of  France,  recognize  him  as  sov- 
ereign, often  delegate  representatives  to  the  Vatican, 

37 


THE  VATICAN 

receive  those  sent  by  the  Pope,  and  agree  to  the  acts 
which  he  accomplishes  in  virtue  of  his  uncontested 
sovereignty. 

Among  these  acts,  the  most  apparent  in  the  eyes  of 
most  people  are  the  distinctions  he  grants — the  in- 
signia of  Pontifical  orders  and  the  titles  of  nobility 
by  which  he  rewards  services  rendered  to  the  Church 
and  the  Papacy.  The  Pontifical  orders  are  six  in 
number: 

The  Supreme  Order  of  Christ,  which  includes  only 
one  class  of  knights,  who  wear  the  decoration  of  the 
order  suspended  from  a  special  collar; 

The  Order  of  Pius  IX,  which  includes  four  classes, 
Commanders  with  the  Badge,  Knights  of  the  Great 
Ribbon,  Commanders  and  Knights; 

The  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  which  is 
granted  for  military  or  civil  services  and  has  two  di- 
visions, civil  and  military,  with  each  division  subdi- 
vided, as  follows:  Grand  Cross  Knights  of  the  First 
Class,  Grand  Cross  Knights  of  the  Second  Class, 
Commanders  and  simple  Knights; 

The  Order  of  St.  Sylvester,  which  was  especially 
designed  to  reward  masters  of  the  various  manifesta- 
tions of  art,  and  has  three  classes:  Grand  Cross 
Knights,  Commanders  and  Knights; 

The  Order  of  the  Golden  Militia  or  the  Golden 
Spur,  formerly  part  of  the  Order  of  St.  Sylvester, 
which  was  reorganized  by  Pius  X  as  a  separate  order 
with  a  membership  limited  to  one  hundred ; 

The  Order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which  consists 
of  Grand  Cross  Knights,  Commanders  and  Knights 

38 


THE  POPE 

and  was  instituted  in  order  to  encourage  trips  to  the 
Holy  Land  by  those  who  might  give  aid  to  the  holy 
places. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  minor  Papal  distinc- 
tions : 

The  Pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontifice,  which  was  estab- 
lished by  Leo  XIII  in  memory  of  his  golden  jubilee 
in  1888  and  awarded  to  those  who  had  aided  in  making 
the  jubilee  a  success.  It  consisted  of  three  classes, 
but,  in  1906,  was  reduced  by  Pius  X  to  one,  the  Gold 
Cross,  which  is  conferred  upon  those  who  in  a  general 
way  deserve  well  of  the  Pope  on  account  of  services 
rendered  to  the  Church; 

The  Benemerenti  Medals,  which  were  instituted  by 
Gregory  XVI  to  reward  civil  and  military  daring  and 
courage ; 

The  Medal  of  the  Holy  Land,  designed  by  Leo 
XIII,  which  is  bestowed  by  the  custodian  of  the  Holy 
Land  on  worthy  pilgrims  as  a  testimonial  of  their  pil- 
grimage. 

The  titles  of  nobility  which  the  Pope  grants  are 
similar  to  those  in  other  courts — prince,  duke,  mar- 
quis, and  especially  count  and  baron.  These  very 
honorable  distinctions  are  either  personal  or  heredi- 
tary. 

An  understanding  of  the  perfect  filial  submission 
professed  by  Catholics  toward  the  Pope  becomes  a 
simple  matter  when  one  sees  such  a  Pontiff  as  our 
well-beloved  Pius  X  occupying  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter. 
After  a  study  of  the  constitution  of  the  Church  and 
the  Papacy,  it  is  quite  natural  that  we  should  seek  to 
4  39 


THE  VATICAN 

know  more  of  the  life  of  him  whom  Providence  has 
given  us  as  chief  and  father  in  the  troublous  times  we 
are  encountering. 

Cardinal  Giuseppe  (Joseph)  Sarto  of  Venice,  now 
Pope  under  the  name  of  Pius  X,  was  born  at  Riese, 
in  the  diocese  of  Trevise,  on  June  2,  1835.  He  was 
therefore  sixty-eight  years  of  age  when  he  was  raised 
to  the  Sovereign  Pontificate.  Leo  XIII  was  also 
elected  Pope  in  his  sixty-eighth  year. 

After  his  preparatory  studies  in  his  native  town, 
the  future  Pope  became  a  student  of  the  Seminary  of 
Padua,  where  he  was  ordained  a  priest  on  September 
18,  1858.  Then  he  filled  successively  several  ecclesi- 
astical posts — Vicar  of  Tombola;  rector  of  Salzano; 
Canon  of  the  Cathedral  and  Professor  of  the  Semi- 
nary of  Trevise,  where  he  became  Vicar  Capitular  on 
the  death  of  the  bishop;  and  finally,  on  March  10, 
1885,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Mantua. 

In  all  these  posts  he  was  warmly  loved  and  admired 
as  a  holy  priest,  endowed  with  a  spirit  of  kindliness 
and  charity,  filled  with  zeal  and  possessing  a  fine  in- 
telligence, as  well  as  an  orator  and  theologian  of  the 
first  order.  On  June  13,  1893,  Leo  XIII  appointed 
him  cardinal  and  three  days  later  conferred  on  him 
the  difficult  post  of  the  Patriarchiate  of  Venice. 

It  is  a  rather  curious  coincidence  that  Cardinal 
Sarto  remained  just  nine  years  in  each  post,  begin- 
ning with  his  first  vicarage.  When  His  Holiness, 
Leo  XIII,  expired  on  July  20,  1903,  Cardinal  Sarto 
left  for  Rome  to  attend  the  consistory,  but  with  so 

40 


THE  POPE 

little  thought  that  he  was  to  be  chosen  for  the  great 
office,  that  he  actually  provided  himself  with  a  return 
ticket.  Dear  God  decided  otherwise,  and  on  the 
morning  of  August  4,  1903,  the  cardinals  in  the  Con- 
clave assembled  at  the  Vatican,  chose  him,  on  the 
seventh  ballot,  Sovereign  Pontiff,  he  having  received 
fifty  votes  out  of  sixty-two  cast.  He  took  the  title 
of  Pius  X  and,  on  August  9,  1903,  was  solemnly 
crowned  at  St.  Peter's. 

Leo  XIII  rendered  great  service  to  Christianity 
and  now  Pius  X,  after  a  few  years'  reign,  is  rendering 
quite  as  important  service.  Thanks  to  his  firm  atti- 
tude, he  has  saved  the  faith  in  France,  unmasked  all 
the  political  intrigues  of  the  Separation,  and  grouped 
Catholics  and  bishops  in  an  admirable  union.  He 
maintains  the  Catholic  organizations  in  a  discipline 
which  will  surely  lead  to  victory,  in  Italy  as  in  all  other 
Catholic  nations.  He  watches  over  the  sacred  deposit 
of  our  belief,  with  an  attention  which  nothing  can 
arrest.  The  condemnation  of  Modernists  is  one  proof 
of  this.  He  has  entirely  reconstituted  the  Roman 
Curia  on  more  practical  lines  for  our  modern  needs; 
has  ordered  the  codification  of  the  laws  of  the  Church ; 
has  simplified  the  steps  to  be  taken  for  Christian  mar- 
riage; has  requested  the  bishops  to  insist  upon  more 
thorough  intellectual  and  theological  training  for 
young  clerics  in  our  seminaries;  has  developed  the 
teaching  of  the  Catechism;  has  reformed  religious  mu- 
sic; and  has  increased  the  fervor  of  the  faithful  by 
calling  them  to  more  frequent  communion.  Is  not 

4,1 


THE  VATICAN 

that  in  itself  enough  to  mark  the  reign  of  a  great 
Pope?  It  would  indeed  be  difficult  today  for  anyone 
to  depreciate  Pius  X.  His  name  is  already  recorded 
in  history,  but  that  concerns  him  little ;  he  prefers  to 
have  a  place  marked  for  him  in  Paradise,  as  his  good 
parish  priest  of  Tombola  said  when  he  was  but  a 
curate. 

Pius  X  has  altered  nothing  in  his  frugal,  laborious 
mode  of  life;  now  that  he  is  the  head  of  the  Church 
he  still  adheres  to  the  simple  customs  which  have  made 
him  the  model  of  pastors  wherever  he  has  been.  The 
work  which  he  performs  every  day  is  considerable. 
Besides  numerous  audiences  in  which  questions  of  the 
deepest  importance  to  the  Christian  world  are  dealt 
with,  he  gives  direct  and  personal  attention  to  all  the 
principal  matters  relating  to  the  Holy  See,  such  as 
encyclicals,  public  letters  and  the  Motu  Proprio,  or 
acts  issued  on  his  own  initiative  and  drawn  up  by  him 
alone  in  concert  with  his  secretaries,  Monsignor  Bres- 
san  and  Monsignor  Pescini.  He  also  writes  his 
private  letters,  telegrams  and  the  outlines  of  his  ad- 
dresses. 

However,  in  spite  of  his  great  capacity  for  work 
and  his  willingness  to  give  his  personal  attention  to 
every  detail,  it  would  be  physically  impossible  for 
Pius  X  to  supervise  each  of  the  affairs  dependent  on 
the  government  of  the  Catholic  world,  if  he  were  not 
assisted  by  the  cardinals  and  the  Roman  congrega- 
tions. But  nothing  important  is  decided  without  his 
approval.  This  is  indicated  by  the  formula  often 
appended  to  the  text  of  such  decisions:  facto  uerbo 


THE  POPE 

cum  sanctissimo,  "report  having  been  made  to  the 
Pope."  Having  spoken  of  the  innumerable  occupa- 
tions of  the  Pope,  we  will  deal  in  our  next  chapter 
with  his  chief  collaborators,  the  cardinals. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  POPE'S  CHIEF  COLLABORATORS 

The  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals:  Bishops,  Priests  and  Deacons 
— The  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State — The  Apostolic  Nuncios 
and  Legates — The  Cardinal  Vicar — The  Cardinal  Grand 
Penitentiary — The  Cardinal  Prefects  of  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gations— The  Administration  of  Papal  Finances — Peter's 
Pence. 

ACCORDING  to  ecclesiastical  authorities  the  origin 
of  the  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals  is  traceable  to  the 
chief  personages  of  the  Roman  clergy  during  the  first 
centuries  of  Christianity.  They  assisted  the  Pope, 
not  only  in  the  administration  of  his  Roman  diocese, 
but  also  in  the  government  of  the  entire  Catholic 
world.  Dating  from  the  ninth  century,  these  first 
cardinals — who  in  all  probability  did  not  then  bear 
that  name,  derived  from  the  Latin  cardo,  a  hinge — 
were  assisted  by  the  six  suburbicarian  bishops,  who 
were  forced  to  reside  in  Rome  owing  to  dispossession 
from  their  sees. 

At  first  the  cardinals  numbered  only  twenty-four. 
By  the  Council  of  Basle,  1439,  and  under  Sixtus  V, 
by  the  two  Constitutions  of  1568  and  1587,  this  num- 
ber was  increased  to  seventy.  It  is  rare,  however, 
that  all  the  red  hats  have  titularies,  for  vacancies  oc- 

44 


THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

cur  rapidly  in  the  ranks  of  the  Sacred  College.  Since 
the  accession  of  Pius  X  to  the  Sovereign  Pontificate, 
thirty-four  cardinals  or  more  have  passed  into  eter- 
nity. 

The  cardinals  are  divided  into  three  orders:  the 
order  of  bishops,  the  order  of  priests  and  the  order  of 
deacons.  Around  the  Pope's  throne,  they  represent 
the  hierarchy  of  the  Sacrament  of  Order,  crowned  by 
the  Sovereign  Pontiff.  The  deans  or  heads  of  each  of 
these  three  orders  of  cardinals  reside  in  Rome,  where 
they  enjoy  special  prerogatives.  For  instance,  dur- 
ing the  Conclave,  they  assist  the  Cardinal  Camerlengo 
in  the  provisional  government  of  the  Church.  The 
dean  of  the  order  of  bishops  is  at  the  same  time  dean 
of  the  whole  Sacred  College. 

Cardinal  bishops  have  all  received  episcopal  conse- 
cration. The  greater  number  of  cardinal  priests  have 
also  received  such  consecration,  having  been  former 
nuncios  and  foreign  cardinals  provided  with  a  bishop- 
ric or  archbishopric  in  some  part  of  the  Catholic 
world.  But  there  are  a  certain  number  of  the  plain 
priests  in  their  ranks.  The  cardinal  deacons  used  in 
reality  to  be  only  deacons;  now,  they  are  all  priests. 
For  very  great  Pontifical  solemnities,  the  cardinals 
wear  the  costume  proper  to  their  degree ;  the  cardinal 
bishops  wear  the  cope;  the  cardinal  priests,  the  chas- 
uble, even  when  they  have  received  episcopal  conse- 
cration; and  the  cardinal  deacons,  the  dalmatic. 

Beyond  these  distinctions  of  liturgical  and  external 
precedence,  the  cardinals  have  equal  rights,  especially 
as  electors  of  the  Pope.  They  are  chosen  indiscrim- 

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inately  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  to  fill  the  highest 
dignities  at  Rome  or  throughout  the  world.  Their 
nomination  belongs  to  the  Pope  alone.  He  an- 
nounces his  choice  by  a  note  written  with  his  own 
hand  and  then  proclaims  it  in  a  public  consistory, 
after  which  he  sends  them  the  red  biretta,  and  at  an- 
other consistory  he  solemnly  imposes  the  red  hat. 
The  Pope  selects  the  cardinals  wherever  he  pleases: 
according  to  custom  he  always  picks  some  out  from 
among  the  religious  orders  and  some  from  the  bishops 
in  the  Catholic  world.  The  Council  of  Trent,  Ses- 
sion XXIV,  Chapter  I,  requires  that  cardinals  shall, 
in  so  far  as  possible,  be  chosen  among  all  nations. 
That  is  the  rule  followed;  but  to  guard  against  the 
danger  of  favoring  one  nation  more  than  another, 
the  custom  has  been  to  settle  the  number  of  cardinals 
which  each  nation  shall  have.  France,  Austria  and 
Spain  usually  have  six;  the  other  nations  have  more 
or  less,  according  to  circumstances  and  to  the  size  of 
their  Catholic  population.  At  the  beginning  of  1912, 
the  Sacred  College  contained  thirty-four  Italian  car- 
dinals and  thirty  foreign  cardinals.  It  is,  of  course, 
necessary,  for  the  proper  government  of  the  Church, 
that  there  should  be  a  greater  number  of  cardinals  in 
Rome  than  elsewhere;  for  Rome  is  the  seat  of  the 
sacred  congregations  to  whom  are  referred  all  matters 
concerning  the  innumerable  dioceses  throughout  the 
world. 

The  Pope  alone  has  jurisdiction  over  the  cardinals. 
Ordinary  censure  cannot  affect  them.  The  rank  of 
Royal  Princes  was  given  them  by  the  Congress  of 

46 


THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

Vienna  and  as  insignia  of  their  dignity  they  wear  the 
red  cap  and  biretta  and  the  red  cassock  for  ceremonial 
occasions;  the  red  hat  has  been  their  distinction  since 
1245,  the  red  cappa  since  1464,  and  the  title  of  "Em- 
inence" since  1630.  Each  cardinal  bears  the  title  of 
one  of  the  churches  in  Rome  and  has  jurisdiction  over 
that  church.  When  such  a  title  falls  vacant  in  Rome, 
the  cardinal  of  the  same  order,  that  is  bishop,  priest 
or  deacon,  also  residing  in  Rome,  and  coming  next 
to  the  deceased  in  standing,  has  the  right  to  choose 
between  the  title  he  holds  and  the  vacant  one.  The 
oldest  cardinal  deacon  may  choose  the  last  vacant  title 
among  the  cardinal  priests;  and  the  oldest  cardinal 
priest  may  likewise  choose  that  of  the  last  cardinal 
bishop.  As  a  result,  the  oldest  member  and  the  pres- 
ident of  the  college  of  cardinals,  the  bishop  of  Ostia, 
is  generally  the  oldest  of  all  the  cardinals. 

The  Pope  summons  the  cardinals  present  in  Rome 
to  secret  consistories  in  order  to  deliberate  concerning 
important  matters;  or  to  extraordinary  consistories 
that  they  may  proceed  to  carry  out  certain  acts  or 
listen  to  allocutions,  called  consistorials,  on  important 
events.  Among  the  cardinals,  some  are  active  col- 
laborators of  the  Pope,  by  reason  of  their  more  im- 
portant duties,  and  they  are  therefore  more  in  view 
and  better  known  to  the  general  mass  of  Christians. 
These  are :  the  cardinal  secretary  of  state,  the  cardinal 
vicar,  the  cardinal  grand  penitentiary  and  the  cardinal 
prefects  of  the  sacred  congregations. 

In  these  days  the  cardinal  secretary  of  state  has  a 
vast  amount  of  work  and  responsibility.  Not  only 

47 


THE  VATICAN 

are  the  relations  between  the  Holy  See  and  other 
governments  his  special  care,  but  in  reality,  all  im- 
portant matters  of  the  Curia  pass  through  his  hands, 
as  well  as  the  granting  of  Papal  honors  and  titles 
and  the  expediting  of  Pontifical  briefs.  He  is  the 
Pope's  alter  ego,  continually  associated  with  all  his 
interests,  even  when  they  are  not  in  any  way  connected 
with  diplomacy.  This  weighty  dignity  is  borne  today 
by  His  Eminence,  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val,  formerly 
pro-secretary  of  the  Pope  and  secretary  of  the  Con- 
clave. The  secretary  of  state's  office,  erected  and  or- 
ganized by  the  Constitution  Romanum  decet  of  June 
22,  1692,  especially  controls  the  nuncios  and  all  the 
other  political  representatives  of  the  Holy  See  abroad. 
The  apostolic  nuncios  are  assigned  to  a  definite  ter- 
ritory or  nunciature  as  the  diplomatic  representa- 
tives of  the  Pope.  They  have  the  same  rank  and 
enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  other  ambassadors  of 
great  nations  and,  in  accordance  with  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  they  are  even  the  heads  of  the  diplomatic 
corps  in  the  respective  capitals  where  they  reside.  At 
present  there  are  four  nunciatures  of  the  first  class- 
Vienna,  Paris  (vacant  since  1904),  Madrid  and  Lis- 
bon; four  of  the  second  class — the  Swiss  (vacant 
since  1873),  Munich,  Brussels  and  Brazil;  two  inter- 
nunciatures,  one  of  Holland  and  Luxemburg,  and  one 
of  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay;  and  several 
delegations.  In  South  and  Central  America  there 
are  five  apostolic  delegations :  Chile ;  Colombia ;  Costa 
Rica ;  Ecuador,  Bolivia  and  Peru ;  and  San  Domingo, 
Haiti  and  Venezuela. 

48 


THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

The  Papal  nuncios  are  generally  diplomats  by  pro- 
fession, all  invested  with  archiepiscopal  dignity,  and 
become  cardinals  at  the  end  of  their  nunciature. 
They  are  assisted  by  a  prelate,  who  is  auditor  or  some- 
times councilor  of  the  nunciature,  and  a  secretary. 
Besides  their  diplomatic  mission,  they  enjoy  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction,  which  they  hold  direct  from  the 
Pope,  in  the  nation  attributed  to  them.  Thus,  they 
can  celebrate  marriages  and  baptisms,  and  fulfill  all 
other  ecclesiastical  functions  throughout  their  land,  in 
virtue  of  the  powers  given  them  directly  by  the  Pope, 
without  having  to  ask  for  authorization  from  the 
bishops  of  the  different  dioceses  under  their  juris- 
diction. At  Madrid,  for  instance,  the  nuncio  presides 
over  a  tribunal  to  which  appeal  can  be  made  from 
the  other  ecclesiastical  tribunals. 

On  important  occasions,  the  Pope  sends  legates  to 
represent  him.  These  legates  are  almost  always  car- 
dinals, vested  with  most  extensive  powers.  They  are 
divided  into  ordinary  legates;  legati  nati  (born  le- 
gates), whose  powers  are  attached  to  an  archiepisco- 
pal see  (nowadays  these  are  hardly  more  than 
honorary  titles) ;  and  legates  a  later e,  who  exercise 
by  deputation  all  the  privileges  which  the  Pope  ordi- 
narily reserves  to  himself. 

The  cardinal  vicar,  His  Excellency  Cardinal  Res- 
pighi,  also  occupies  a  very  important  and  very  prom- 
inent post.  He  is  really  the  Pope's  vicar  general  for 
the  Roman  diocese,  where  he  exercises  the  same  func- 
tions as  other  bishops  in  their  dioceses.  He  it  is  who 
appoints  the  parish  priests,  ordains,  examines  and 

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approves  the  confessors  and  preachers,  watches  over 
the  regular  administration  of  sacraments  and  the 
teaching  of  the  catechism  in  parishes,  sees  to  the  higher 
teaching  of  ecclesiastical  sciences  in  the  Roman  semi- 
nary, supervises  the  religious  houses  and  foreign 
priests,  attends  to  the  authenticity  and  preservation  of 
holy  relics,  and  so  forth.  As  the  diocese  of  Rome  is 
the  model  of  all  dioceses  throughout  the  world,  it  is 
easy  to  realize  how  important  is  the  duty  of  the  cardi- 
nal vicar.  His  offices  for  the  administration  of  vari- 
ous branches  of  the  ecclesiastical  organization  are  very 
numerous  and  occupy  a  part  of  the  vicar's  palace,  near 
St.  Augustine's  Church. 

The  cardinal  grand  penitentiary,  Cardinal  Serafino 
Vannutelli,  has  an  enormous  jurisdiction,  for  in  ques- 
tions of  conscience  it  comprises  the  whole  world, 
regulating  all  special  authorizations  for  confessors' 
dispensations,  absolutions  in  cases  of  extreme  gravity, 
commutations,  the  solving  of  embarrassing  matters  of 
conscience;  all  rehabilitations  of  the  inner  life  are 
referred  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Peniten- 
ziaria.  The  most  absolute  discretion  is  insisted  upon 
and  the  names  of  persons  being  dealt  with,  are  never 
divulged.  They  are  merely  indicated  by  initials  or 
any  baptismal  names  that  may  seem  convenient. 

Once  a  year,  during  Holy  Week,  a  ceremony  takes 
place  in  the  Churches  of  St.  Peter,  St.  John  Lateran 
and  St.  Mary  Major  at  Rome,  which  is  of  a  nature 
to  impress  the  minds  of  the  people  and  to  make  them 
realize  the  power  of  forgiveness  which  Christ  has 
handed  down  to  His  Church.  The  cardinal  peniten- 

50 


THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

tiary,  in  full  robes,  accompanied  by  the  prelates  and 
secretaries  composing  the  Congregation  of  the  Peni- 
tenziaria,  visits  each  of  the  three  churches  four  times, 
and  takes  seat  on  the  penitential  chair,  a  wooden 
throne  which  may  be  seen  at  St.  Peter's  to  the  left  of 
the  Pope's  altar,  against  a  great  pillar  of  the  cupola. 
The  people,  who  love  this  sight,  crowd  into  that  por- 
tion of  the  immense  building.  All  who  wish  to  make 
their  confession  ascend  the  steps  to  the  throne,  confess 
their  sins  and  go  away  absolved. 

The  cardinal  prefects  of  the  various  congregations 
are  also  very  active  collaborators  of  the  Holy  Father ; 
but  the  busiest  among  them  is  most  certainly  the  car- 
dinal prefect  of  propaganda,  who  is  at  the  head  of  all 
the  mission-fields,  with  their  numerous  bishops.  In 
a  following  chapter  on  Catholic  missions  throughout 
the  world,  the  extensive  powers  of  the  cardinal  prefect 
of  propaganda  will  be  discussed,  as  well  as  the  vast 
amount  of  work  he  accomplishes.  The  other  cardinal 
prefects  or  prelate  secretaries  of  the  various  congrega- 
tions have  a  special  audience  with  the  Pope  at  least 
once  a  week  in  which  they  report  concerning  the  af- 
fairs of  their  congregations,  and  ask  his  final  decision 
on  matters  of  importance;  there  are  always  a  good 
many  questions  to  be  discussed,  for  all  religious  liti- 
gations or  complications  throughout  the  world  finally 
reach  some  Roman  congregation  for  solution. 

The  administration  of  Papal  finances  is  a  matter 
of  such  importance  and  extent  that  the  Pope  also 
requires  several  collaborators  in  that  department. 
Pormerly  Cardinal  Mocenni,  surnamed  "the  kind- 

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THE  VATICAN 

hearted  grumbler"  and  lovingly  remembered  by  all 
who  knew  him,  had  charge  of  the  Pontifical  ledgers. 
He  laughingly  said  on  one  occasion: 

"Each  year  I  buy  a  big  ledger  and  on  the  two  first  pages 
I  write  'Receipts  —  Expenditure.'  The  second  page  is 
easily  filled  up  in  advance:  alms,  cost  of  representation  of 
the  Holy  See  abroad,  i.  e.  nuncios,  delegates,  etc. ;  alms  to 
missions ;  cost  of  general  government  of  the  Church ;  grants 
to  cardinals  and  members  of  the  various  congregations  and 
Roman  courts ;  maintenance  of  palaces  and  fees  to  the  Vati- 
can staff  of  retainers,  museum  keepers,  Pontifical  police, 
etc.  The  personal  expenses  of  the  Pope  are  very  slight 
indeed ;  many  would  be  surprised  at  their  insignificance.  On 
the  'Receipts'  side,  I  jot  down  the  small  revenues  of  the 
various  chancellors'  offices  and  the  sums  accruing  to  the  Holy 
See  from  certain  livings  strewn  throughout  the  Catholic 
world.  I  then  put  down  the  principal  item,  'Peter's  Pence,' 
and  after  that  I  wait  for  further  developments.  Well,  would 
you  believe  it?  At  the  end  of  the  year,  thanks  be  to  God, 
my  two  pages  balance,  and  sometimes  I  even  have  a  small 
credit  balance,  the  result  of  greatest  economy ;  for  here  in 
Rome  we  cut  up  our  pennies  into  many  fragments !" 

The  total  amount  of  inevitable  expenditure  entailed 
on  the  Holy  See  does  not  reach  six  millions  of  francs 
a  year. 

Peter's  Pence,  an  annual  contribution  paid  to  the 
Holy  See  by  various  Christian  peoples,  is  not  by  any 
means  a  recent  institution.  It  goes  back  to  the  volun- 
tary donations  which  the  Church  sent  to  the  Apostles 
and  which  are  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (I  Corinthians, 
16:1  et  seq.).  In  the  Middle  Ages,  Peter's  Pence 

52 


THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

took  the  form  of  a  definite  tribute  paid  by  England 
and  a  few  of  the  northern  nations  to  the  Holy  See — 
a  penny  from  each  householder  holding  land  of  certain 
value.  In  855,  King  Ethelwulf,  after  his  visit  to 
Rome,  put  Wessex  under  the  Pope's  protection,  in 
consideration  of  a  tribute  to  be  furnished  yearly  by 
his  kingdom.  At  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  the 
Moravians,  and  in  1041,  the  Polish  people  also,  agreed 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  Pope.  In  1059,  Robert  Guis- 
card,  ready  to  conquer  the  lands  which  later  on  con- 
stituted the  realm  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  promised  the 
See  of  St.  Peter  a  payment  of  12  pence  for  each  yoke 
of  oxen.  Successively  Aragon,  in  1063,  the  King- 
dom of  Kiew,  in  1075,  Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  in  1076, 
the  Countship  of  Montpellier,  in  1085,  the  Count- 
ship  of  Barcelona,  in  1091,  Tuscany,  in  1115,  Portu- 
gal, in  1144,  Sweden  and  Norway,  about  1150,  the 
Kingdom  of  Cyprus,  in  1247,  Scotland  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  century,  Pomerania,  in  1331, 
the  Kingdom  of  Malvoisia,  in  1460  and  at  uncertain 
dates  Bohemia,  Tarragona,  Provence,  Hungary  and 
Denmark  accepted  the  obligation  of  sending  an  an- 
nual tribute  to  Rome. 

The  Holy  See  had  special  collectors  to  gather  in 
these  tributes.  According  to  some  authorities,  the 
Knights  Templars  undertook  this  task.  A  certain 
chronicle  of  the  thirteenth  century  quotes  31,000 
crowns  as  the  average  amount  representing  the  yearly 
accumulation  of  Peter's  Pence.  Between  1185  and 
1188,  Cardinal  Albinus  drew  up  a  list  of  all  the  Papal 
lands.  In  1192  the  Camereria  Census  made  a  similar 

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THE  VATICAN 

register,  which  has  been  found  of  late- years,  and  which 
contains  the  names  of  the  Pope's  debtors  and  their 
dues,  province  by  province,  with  the  constituent  title 
of  each  debt — donation,  will,  purchase  contract,  ex- 
change contract,  oath  of  allegiance,  and  so  forth. 

Peter's  Pence  as  it  exists  has  the  character  of  the 
voluntary  offerings  of  the  Christians.  It  is  entirely 
optional  and  testifies  to  the  profound  filial  affection 
which  binds  the  Catholics  of  the  whole  world  to  the 
Supreme  Pastor  whom  all  so  tenderly  call  their  Holy 
Father.  This  tribute  dates  from  the  political  crisis 
of  1849  which  ended  in  the  seizure  of  the  Pontifi- 
cal States.  It  was  the  Abbe  Dupanloup,  later  the 
famous  Bishop  of  Orleans,  who  proposed  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  Peter's  Pence. 

When  Napoleon  I  annexed  the  Roman  States  to 
France,  he  issued  a  decree,  dated  February  13,  1813, 
by  which  a  revenue  of  two  millions  of  francs  per  an- 
num was  assigned  to  the  Pope.  On  July  14,  1859, 
Napoleon  III  wrote  to  Pius  IX:  "I  would  ask  all 
Catholic  rulers  of  nations  to  contribute  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Papal  throne."  Pius  IX  sternly  re- 
fused such  a  proposal.  In  1860,  Napoleon  III,  fore- 
seeing the  speedy  annexation  of  Umbria  by  Piedmont, 
begged  the  Pope  to  abandon  his  States  and  accept 
a  subsidy  from  the  Powers  instead.  Pius  IX  replied 
that  on  mounting  the  throne,  he  had  sworn  to  pre- 
serve the  rights  and  possessions  of  the  Holy  See  intact 
and  that  though  he  might,  perhaps,  in  an  extreme 
case,  accept  a  subsidy,  it  could  not  be  in  exchange  for 
his  States,  but  as  a  compensation  for  the  ancient  ca- 

54- 


THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

nonical  dues  which  the  Holy  See  used  to  levy  on  the 
revenues  of  vacant  sees.  In  May,  1862,  after  the 
annexation  of  Umbria  and  the  Marches  by  Piedmont, 
Napoleon  III  proposed  for  a  last  time  the  constitu- 
tion of  a  civil  list  to  be  paid  by  the  Powers  to 
the  Pope.  France  would  have  contributed  largely. 
Pius  IX  refused  on  July  25.  Then  Monsignor  Du- 
panloup  in  France  and  Monsignor  Merode  in  Bel- 
gium immediately  opened  subscription  lists  under  the 
title  of  Peter's  Pence.  It  was  on  German  land,  how- 
ever, that  the  institution  really  took  official  form. 
As  early  as  1860,  some  eminent  ecclesiastics  met  at 
Vienna  and  determined  to  form  the  "Confraternity 
of  St.  Michael"  which  Pius  IX  approved  by  a  brief 
dated  March  7,  1860.  Thence  the  association  spread 
through  Austria,  Germany  and  Italy.  To  become  a 
member  of  the  association  it  was  only  necessary  to 
undertake  to  recite  certain  prayers  and  to  pay  two 
pfennig  each  month.  In  most  of  the  dioceses,  the 
association  has  agents,  each  of  whom  is  bound  to  col- 
lect payments  from  ten  members,  local  directors  who 
receive  the  money  from  these  collectors,  and  a  dio- 
cesan committee  which  transmits  the  money  to  Rome. 
In  other  dioceses,  at  Mayence,  for  instance,  the  parish 
priest  acts  as  local  director,  with  the  assistance  of 
some  reliable  parishioners  who  appoint  one  of  their 
number  as  treasurer;  the  priest  sends  the  funds  to 
the  dean,  who  forwards  them  to  the  bishop. 

At  Rome  the  institution  has  taken  the  shape  of  an 
archconfraternity  of  St.  Peter,  approved  by  two 
briefs  signed  by  Pius  IX  and  dated  October  13  and 

55 


THE  VATICAN 

November  4,  1860.  The  patron  of  the  archcon- 
fraternity  is  the  cardinal  vicar;  it  is  managed  by  a 
board  comprising  a  president,  a  vice-president,  a  gen- 
eral treasurer,  eight  councilors  and  a  vice-secretary. 
The  board  appoints  collectors  for  each  parish,  and 
every  month  the  collectors  meet  to  give  an  account 
of  their  receipts.  The  general  treasurers  pay  the 
funds  directly  to  the  Pope. 

The  Roman  confraternity  has  power  to  aggregate 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  with  the  bishop's  consent, 
confraternities  of  the  same  name  and  object.  Thus 
the  work  of  Peter's  Pence  in  Paris,  is  affiliated  by  a 
brief,  dated  June  16,  1868,  to  the  Roman  archcon- 
fraternity,  and  almost  all  dioceses  in  France  have  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  Paris  in  this  matter.  In 
France  the  cures  make  collections  once  or  several 
times  a  year  for  Peter's  Pence,  and  send  the  funds  to 
the  bishop,  whence  they  are  forwarded  directly  to  the 
Vatican. 

A  centralized  organization  was  given  to  Peter's 
Pence  in  1872  by  a  circular  dated  April  22,  and  signed 
by  Cardinal  Antonelli.  The  circular  proposed  that 
the  bishops  should  centralize  the  offerings,  order  col- 
lections in  all  churches  in  their  dioceses  on  certain 
determined  days,  and  then  carry  the  offerings  to  Rome 
every  three  years  on  the  occasion  of  their  visits  ad 
limina.  They  are  requested  not  to  send  the  money 
through  the  post  or  banks.  When  the  bishop  is  un- 
able to  take  it  to  Rome  himself,  he  should  entrust 
it  to  some  ecclesiastic  for  safe  transport. 

The  Pontifical  finances,  with  their  example  of  regu- 

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THE  POPE'S  COLLABORATORS 

larity,  strict  economy  and  real  balance  between  re- 
ceipts and  expenditure — a  lesson  to  many  national 
budgets — have  often  been  unjustly  criticised  and  de- 
rided by  anti-religious  malevolence.  Catholics  are, 
however,  impervious  to  such  attacks.  These  criti- 
cisms are  not  confined  to  our  own  times  alone.  In 
1520  a  French  edition  of  the  "Livre  des  Taxes,"  col- 
lected by  the  Holy  See,  appeared  in  Paris  and  was  even 
reproduced  in  a  Tractatus  Universi  juris  dedicated 
to  Gregory  XIII  in  1583.  But  the  book  was  placed 
on  the  Index  in  1570  and  in  1590,  and  Clement  VIII 
gave  the  reasons  for  this  in  1596:  "Because,"  said  he, 
"the  subject  has  been  misrepresented  by  heretics." 
The  Church's  enemies  have  ever  made  use  of  similar 
weapons. 

In  the  following  chapter  we  shall  deal  with  the  or- 
ganization and  administration  of  the  Roman  con- 
gregations, tribunals  and  Pontifical  offices;  we  shall 
thus  have  afforded  our  readers  a  true  and  complete 
description  of  the  organs  of  the  government  of  the 
Catholic  world,  centered  in  Rome,  under  the  general 
name  of  the  Holv  See. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

The  Reorganization  of  the  Curia  by  Pius  X — The  Office  System 
of  the  Curia — The  Pontifical  Ministerial  Departments  or 
Sacred  Congregations — The  Ecclesiastical  Tribunals — The 
Bureaus. 

BEFORE  the  Pontificate  of  Sixtus  V,  1585-1590,  the 
consistory,  a  reunion  of  the  whole  body  of  cardinals 
presided  over  by  the  Pope,  was  the  only  organized 
tribunal  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  which,  conse- 
quently, had  to  consider  the  whole  enormous  mass  of 
suits  and  disputes  referred  to  the  Holy  See.  It  is 
probable  that  this  consistory  was  the  continuation 
of  the  ancient  Presbyterium,  or  college  of  priests  and 
deacons,  who,  from  the  early  days  of  the  Church,  sur- 
rounded the  Roman  Pontiff .  On  January  22,  1587, 
Sixtus  V  issued  the  Bull  Immensa,  establishing  or  re- 
organizing fifteen  distinct  congregations,  with  a  view 
to  simplifying  and  expediting  Church  procedure. 
Though  it  is  true  that  some  of  these  congregations 
disappeared  with  time,  and  others  have  been  created 
to  meet  new  needs,  the  organization  of  the  Roman 
Curia,  or  Pontifical  administration,  has  continued 
down  to  the  present  day  substantially  as  planned  by 
this  great  Pope.  Yet  the  fabric  had  become  very 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

imperfect  in  many  details,  and  numerous  complaints 
of  its  defects  were  made  by  the  bishops  to  Popes  Leo 
XIII  and  Pius  X.  It  was  evident  that  some  of  the 
congregations  had  lost  their  reason  d'etre,  while  others 
were  over-charged  with  work.  The  jurisdiction  of 
each  congregation  was  not  clearly  established,  so  that 
the  same  case  might  be  judged  by  several  of  them. 
What  concerned  the  judiciary  power  of  the  Church 
was  not  always  separated  from  what  concerned  the 
legislative  power.  It  was  this  state  of  things  which 
led  Pius  X  in  an  endeavor  to  remedy  conditions,  to 
issue  on  June  27,  1908,  the  Constitution  Sapienti 
consitio,  a  bull  followed  by  several  regulations,  some 
of  which  were  issued  on  the  same  date  and  others  on 
September  29  of  the  same  year. 

To  give  the  reader  a  clear  idea  of  the  meaning  and 
extent  of  this  voluminous  bull,  the  text  of  this  chapter 
has  been  almost  wholly  based  either  on  its  exact  words 
or  on  a  general  resume  of  its  various  articles.  The 
document  opens  with  an  enumeration  of  the  reasons 
which  led  His  Holiness  to  undertake  this  complete 
reform  of  the  Roman  Curia,  and  it  then  continues  in 
these  words: 

"Therefore,  after  consulting  several  cardinals,  we  have 
decided  and  decreed  that,  outside  of  the  ordinary  sacred  con- 
sistories, the  only  congregations,  tribunals  and  bureaus  to 
which  can  be  referred  the  business  of  the  Universal  Church, 
are  those  prescribed  by  the  present  constitution,  and  that 
their  number,  order  and  competence  are  defined  and  estab- 
lished by  the  articles  of  this  bull." 

His  Holiness  then  enumerates  thirteen  congrega- 

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tions,  three  ecclesiastical  tribunals  and  six  bureaus, 
to  which  are  added  several  special  commissions. 

The  thirteen  congregations  are  as  follows : 

I,  The  Holy  Office;  II,  The  Consistory;  III,  The 
Sacraments;  IV,  The  Council;  V,  The  Congregation 
of  Religious;  VI,  Propaganda;  VII,  The  Index; 
VIII,  Rites ;  IX,  The  Ceremonial ;  X,  Extraordinary 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs;  XI,  Studies;  XII,  The  Con- 
gregation of  Loreto ;  XIII,  The  Congregation  of  the 
Fabric  of  St.  Peter's. 

The  tribunals  are: 

I,  The  Sacred  Penitentiaria ;  II,  The  Sacred  Roman 
Rota;  III,  The  Apostolic  Signatura. 

The  bureaus  are: 

I,  The  Apostolic  Chancery;  II,  The  Apostolic 
Dataria;  III,  The  Apostolic  Camera;  IV,  The  Sec- 
retariate of  State;  V,  The  Secretariate  of  Briefs  to 
Princes;  VI,  The  Secretariate  of  Latin  Letters. 

Cardinalitial  commissions  are  either  connected  with 
the  congregations  or  under  the  direct  authority  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff .  They  are  enumerated  further  on 
in  this  chapter. 

Before  taking  up  for  brief  consideration  each  one 
of  these  congregations,  we  must  first  give  the  rules 
laid  down  by  Pius  X  which  govern  their  clerks  and 
employes,  and  are  characterized  by  so  much  wisdom, 
justice  and  consideration  that  they  might  serve  as 
models  for  the  governmental  departments  of  any  na- 
tion in  the  world.  They  form  a  veritable  body  of 
functionary  statutes. 

His  Holiness  first  lays  down  some  general  princi- 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

pies.  Thus,  one  and  the  same  person  may  not  fill 
several  posts  at  one  and  the  same  time,  "so  that  he 
who  wishes  to  enter  a  new  post  must  resign  from  the 
old  one."  Near  relatives  may  not  be  employed  in 
the  same  dicasteria,  that  is,  in  the  bureau  of  an  office 
devoted  to  the  same  class  of  affairs.  The  promotion 
of  clerks  of  the  lower  offices  is  based  on  the  law  of 
seniority  in  the  Papal  service.  This  rule  is  not  ob- 
served, however,  in  appointments  to  the  higher  posts. 
Before  entering  upon  their  duties,  both  classes  of 
clerks  must  take  an  oath  in  the  presence  of  the  prelate 
who  presides  over  their  bureau  "to  faithfully  perform 
their  duty,  not  to  accept  gifts  even  if  spontaneously 
offered,  and  to  observe  professional  secrecy."  To 
this  oath,  common  to  all  clerks,  is  added  another  for 
candidates  for  the  higher  posts.  Some  of  the  other 
rules  may  be  given. 

Office  hours  are  from  9:30  A.M.  to  12:30  P.M., 
every  day  except  Sundays  and  holidays.  During 
these  hours,  every  clerk  is  expected  to  be  at  his  desk, 
to  arrive  on  time  and  not  to  leave  before  time,  except 
in  the  case  of  those  who  are  authorized  to  do  their 
work  at  home.  However,  superiors  may  grant  a 
clerk  one  or  two  days'  vacation  each  month,  provided 
this  does  not  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  office. 
Likewise,  every  year  or  every  two  years,  clerks  are 
granted  a  few  days,  but  never  more  than  a  week,  for 
spiritual  purposes.  If  illness  or  any  other  cause  pre- 
vents a  clerk  from  appearing  at  the  office,  he  must 
inform  his  superior.  Except  in  the  case  of  higher 
officials  and  those  whose  duty  makes  it  necessary,  no 

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clerk  may  receive  a  visitor  during  office  hours.  No 
clerk  is  permitted  to  perform  the  work  of  another, 
to  be  replaced  by  or  to  replace  another,  except  by 
direction  of  a  superior.  Dispatch  and  care  in  the 
transaction  of  business  must  be  the  rule  of  the  offices. 
When  there  is  a  press  of  business,  the  hours  given 
above  may  be  lengthened  and  should  be  properly  re- 
munerated. Superiors  will  call  the  attention  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  to  the  names  of  those  clerks  who 
distinguish  themselves  by  their  intelligence,  their  ap- 
plication and  ability  in  the  business  of  the  office,  and 
by  their  general  good  conduct.  No  clerk  may  act  as 
an  agent  or  advocate  in  any  affair  which  comes  up  in 
his  own  or  another  bureau,  except  in  the  single  case 
of  an  affair  of  canonization,  when  the  interests  of  the 
future  saint  may  He  defended  by  any  clerk  who  is  not 
employed  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Sacred 
Rites.  A  delinquent  clerk  may  be  suspended  or  dis- 
charged, according  to  the  nature  of  his  fault.  The 
accused  may  present  his  defense  in  writing.  Sus- 
pension or  discharge  from  office  must  be  approved  by 
His  Holiness.  Aged  public  servants  are  properly 
cared  for. 

The  rules  governing  solicitors  or  agents  are  not 
less  notable.  These  persons  are  the  recognized  inter- 
mediaries for  all  affairs  which  come  before  the  con- 
gregations, tribunals,  or  bureaus  at  Rome  and  which 
have  been  confided  to  them  by  bishops  or  the  faithful 
in  all  parts  of  the  world — for  every  Catholic,  let  it  be 
stated,  has  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  Holy  See.  But 
these  solicitors  are  not  allowed  to  send  out  circulars 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

offering  favorable  conditions  or  to  ask  too  much  for 
their  services.  A  rate  of  payment  has  been  fixed  by 
the  Holy  See,  and  any  violation  of  it  is  severely  pun- 
ished. If  the  appellant,  whether  a  private  person  or 
a  worthy  institution  or  association,  be  poor,  his  ex- 
penses will  be  reduced  one-half,  or  even  no  charge 
will  be  made,  and  he  will  be  expected  to  pay  only  the 
actual  cost  of  his  affair.  These  facts  are  a  sufficient 
reply  to  the  charges  of  the  enemies  of  the  Church  who 
often  dwell  on  "the  rapacity  of  Rome,"  and  who 
sometimes  insinuate  that  by  the  use  of  money  one  may 
obtain  all  that  one  wants. 

The  Roman  congregations  are  composed  of  cardi- 
nals appointed  by  the  Holy  Father.  One  of  them  is 
called  the  prefect  of  the  Pope,  and  his  duty  consists 
in  seeing  that  the  cases  are  properly  prepared  for  the 
consideration  of  the  congregation  and  are  properly 
decided.  In  this  work  he  is  aided  by  an  ecclesiastical 
secretary  of  the  congregation,  whose  important  work 
is  generally  compensated  at  the  end  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years  by  an  appointment  to  a  cardinalate. 
Besides  these  officials,  the  congregations  are  provided 
with  a  number  of  "consultants"  (bishops,  prelates  or 
religious),  clerks  and  employes,  who  are  divided  into 
two  categories,  superiors  and  inferiors.  The  con- 
sultants and  superior  clerks,  separately,  examine  the 
cases  laid  before  the  congregation,  and  then  meet  in  a 
congresso,  which  is  presided  over  by  the  prelate  secre- 
tary, where  they  examine,  together,  the  cases,  which, 
after  these  preliminary  examinations,  are  laid  before 
the  cardinals  united  in  a  body. 

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We  will  now  take  up  in  turn  each  one  of  the  con- 
gregations, give  some  little  account  of  their  origin 
and  purpose,  and  then  describe  more  in  detail  their 
administration  as  affected  by  the  constitution  of 
Pius  X. 

I.  The  Holy  Office.  This  congregation  has  ex- 
isted in  its  present  form  only  since  the  16th  century. 
But  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Innocent  III,  1198-1216, 
had  already  established  at  Rome  an  Inquisitorial 
Tribunal,  whose  purpose  was  to  suppress  the  Albi- 
gensian  heresy  and  other  innovations  from  the  south 
of  France.  In  1251,  Innocent  IV  confided  the  direc- 
tion of  this  tribunal  to  the  Dominican  Friars.  The 
Sapienti  of  Pius  X  contains,  as  we  have  already  said, 
the  latest  regulations  concerning  this  congregation. 
Thus,  we  are  informed  that  its  meetings  are  held 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Holy  Father  himself  and 
that  its  duties  are  "to  safeguard  doctrine  in  its  relation 
to  faith  and  customs."  Consequently,  this  congre- 
gation alone  judges  cases  of  heresy  and  other  offenses 
which  offer  a  suspicion  of  heresy.  To  it  is  referred 
also  the  whole  question  of  indulgences,  "both  doc- 
trinally  and  practically.'*  Although  a  special  con- 
gregation concerning  the  discipline  of  the  sacraments 
is  established  by  this  Constitution  Sapienti,  yet  the 
Holy  Office  "reserves  to  itself  the  full  and  entire  right 
to  take  cognizance,  besides,  of  doctrinal  questions  re- 
lating to  marriage  and  of  the  privilege  known  as  'the 
Pauline  Privilege/  as  well  as  of  impediments  to  mar- 
riage because  of  disparity  of  religion  and  mixed 
religions." 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

The  Pauline  Privilege  is  also  called  "the  Apostolic 
case,"  because  it  was  promulgated  by  St.  Paul  in  the 
First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  7I12-15,1  and  con- 
cerns the  marriage  of  infidels.  If  one  of  the  contract- 
ing parties  is  converted  to  the  true  faith  and  the  other 
refuses  to  live  with  the  one  who  has  become  a  Chris- 
tian, or  vexes  him  or  her,  endeavors  to  force  him  or 
her,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  renounce  the  faith,  or  speaks 
ill  of  religion — for  any  of  these  causes  the  marriage 
can  be  annulled. 

The  decrees  of  the  Holy  Office  are  always  sub- 
mitted to  the  Pope  for  his  approval,  and  if  he  ap- 
proves of  them  in  particular,  in  forma  specified,  they 
are  no  longer  the  acts  of  the  Holy  Office,  but  become 
an  act  of  Papal  authority,  the  whole  judicial  responsi- 
bility of  which  is  assumed  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff; 
it  is  a  law  of  the  Pope  himself. 

II.  The  Consistory.  Formerly,  the  oldest  cardi- 
nal was  prefect  of  this  congregation ;  but  for  a  century, 
the  Pope  himself  has  assumed  this  post  and  still  con- 
tinues to  hold  it.  This  has  always  been  a  very  im- 
portant congregation.  Pius  X  divides  it  into  two 
distinct  sections;  the  first  prepares  the  matter  which 

i  "If  any  brother  hath  a  wife  that  believeth  not,  and  she  consent  to 
dwell  with  him,  let  him  not  put  her  away. 

"And  if  any  woman  hath  a  husband  that  believeth  not,  and  he  con- 
sent to  dwell  with  her,  let  her  not  put  away  her  husband. 

"For  the  unbelieving  husband  is  sanctified  by  the  believing  wife;  and 
the  unbelieving  wife  is  sanctified  by  the  believing  husband;  otherwise 
your  children  should  be  unclean;  but  now  they  are  holy. 

"But  if  the  unbeliever  depart,  let  him  depart.  For  a  brother  or  sis- 
ter is  not  under  servitude  in  such  cases.  But  God  hath  called  us  in 
peace." 

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is  to  be  treated  in  consistory  and  designates,  in  those 
countries  which  are  not  under  the  authority  of  the 
Congregation  of  Propaganda,  new  dioceses  and  chap- 
ters, both  cathedratic  and  collegiate.  This  congre- 
gation may,  further,  divide  when  necessary  dioceses 
already  established;  elect  bishops,  apostolic  adminis- 
trators, and  the  coadjutors  and  auxiliaries  of  the 
bishops;  prescribe  canonical  inquiries  concerning  the 
candidates  for  these  posts  and  weigh  the  results  of 
these  inquiries.  But  if  all  these  various  powers  are 
to  be  exercised  in  countries  lying  outside  of  Italy, 
these  duties  are  transferred  to  the  Secretaryship  of 
State,  which  will  be  described  further  on  in  this  chap- 
ter. 

The  second  section  of  this  congregation  has  to  do 
with  everything  pertaining  to  the  administration  of 
all  those  dioceses  not  under  the  authority  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Propaganda.  It  will  see  to  the 
faithful  accomplishment  of  duty  by  the  ordinaries, 
will  examine  the  written  reports  of  the  bishops  con- 
cerning the  condition  of  their  dioceses,  will  prescribe 
apostolic  visits,  will  order  any  measures  judged  nec- 
essary and  opportune,  and,  finally,  will  have  the 
general  management  of  the  business  and  intellectual 
side  of  the  seminaries. 

This  congregation  settles  any  conflict  of  powers 
which  may  arise  between  different  congregations. 
Some  of  its  recent  decisions  may  be  given  as  examples 
of  its  work.  Thus,  on  November  12,  1908,  it  decreed 
that  the  Colleges  of  North  America,  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  established  at  Rome,  should  be  subject  to 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

the  direction  of  the  Consistorial  Congregation;  on 
January  27,  1909,  that  the  bishops  residing  within  a 
radius  of  one  hundred  miles  of  Rome  should  be  in- 
vited to  the  ceremonies  attending  the  canonization  of 
Blessed  Clemens  Hofbauer  and  of  Blessed  Joseph 
Oriol,  celebrated  at  Rome  on  Ascension  Day  of  that 
year,  and  prescribed  the  vestments  of  the  bishops  at 
these  ceremonies;  on  March  16,  1909,  it  decreed  that 
the  Pope  should  elevate  the  parochial  church  of  Jatiba, 
formerly  Setablis,  of  the  Diocese  of  Valencia,  Spain, 
to  a  collegiate  church,  with  a  certain  number  of  canons 
presided  over  by  an  abbot,  this  being  done  to  honor 
the  memory  of  Popes  Calixtus  III,  1455-1458,  and 
Alexander  VI,  1492-1503,  who  were  baptized  in  this 
edifice,  and,  as  the  decree  reads,  "in  memory  of  its 
glorious  past";  on  June  22,  1909,  that  to  the  episco- 
pal title  of  Bayonne,  France,  might  be  added  that  of 
the  suppressed  bishoprics  of  Lascar  and  Oleron, 
though  the  Bishop  of  Bayonne  may  not,  at  the  same 
time,  assume  the  title  of  First  Baron  of  Beam,  which 
title  belongs  to  the  Navaills  family;  on  July  7,  1909, 
that  the  Bishop  of  Adria  should  reside  thenceforth 
at  Rovigo  and  transfer  his  episcopal  Curia  thither, 
but  must  keep  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Adria,  and  cele- 
brate High  Mass  on  grand  occasions  "in  his  cathedral 
there";  on  July  20,  1909,  that,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  religious  services  of  the  region,  the  parish  of  St. 
Eusebius,  Stamford,  Canada,  be  united  to  that  of  St. 
Callixtus,  Somerset;  and  on  July  28,  1909,  that  the 
pensioning  age  of  Auditors  of  the  Rota  be  fixed  at 
seventy-five. 

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III.  The  Discipline  of  the  Sacraments.  This  new 
congregation  is  composed  of  nine  cardinals,  one  of 
whom  is  given  the  title  of  prefect.  The  prelate  secre- 
tary has  under  him  three  assistant  secretaries,  who 
direct  three  distinct  bureaus  charged  with  the  business 
of  the  congregation.  The  first  of  these  bureaus  at- 
tends to  all  matters  concerning  impediments  to  mar- 
riage; the  second,  all  other  questions  concerning 
marriage ;  and  the  third,  everything  concerning  disci- 
pline outside  of  marriage.  The  Constitution  Sapienti 
consilio  goes  into  these  matters  in  considerable  detail 
and  in  an  interesting  manner.  Thus,  we  are  informed 
that  "to  this  congregation  is  confided  all  legislation 
relative  to  the  discipline  of  the  seven  sacraments, 
without  prejudice,  however,  to  the  rights  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Holy  Office,"  as  given  above,  "or 
those  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  in  so  far  as  con- 
cerns the  making,  administration  and  reception  of 
the  sacraments."  The  constitution  then  goes  on  to 
say  that  to  this  same  congregation  is  assigned  every- 
thing which,  up  to  the  present,  other  congregations, 
tribunals  and  bureaus  had  been  in  the  habit  of  consid- 
ering as  their  own,  concerning  Uoth  matrimonial  disci- 
pline, such  as  dispensations  from  civil  tribunals,  the 
Sanatio  in  radice,  revalidation,  dispensations  relative 
to  non-consummated  marriages,  the  separation  of 
married  persons,  the  legitimization  of  children;  and 
everything  concerning  the  discipline  of  the  other  sac- 
raments, such  as  dispensations  accorded  to  candidates 
for  holy  order  (saving,  however,  the  rights  of  the 
congregation  which  has  to  do  with  the  affairs  of  reli- 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

gious  persons) ,  the  regulation  of  what  concerns  their 
ordination,  dispensations  relative  to  the  place,  time 
and  conditions  of  the  Eucharist,  the  celebration  of 
the  Holy  Sacrifice,  the  reservation  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  and  everything  else  of  this  nature.  With- 
out infringing  on  the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy  Office, 
this  congregation  also  treats  all  questions  concerning 
the  validity  of  a  marriage  or  of  holy  orders,  and  every- 
thing relating  to  the  discipline  of  the  sacraments. 
But  if  there  are  cases  which  the  congregation  thinks 
would  best  be  treated  by  judicial  procedure,  these  are 
handed  over  to  the  Tribunal  of  the  Sacred  Roman 
Rota. 

This  congregation,  as  is  also  the  case  with  all  those 
mentioned  hereafter  in  this  chapter,  is  presided  over 
by  a  cardinal  prefect,  aided  by  a  secretary  and  other 
necessary  officials.  The  members  of  the  congregation 
are  all  cardinals  appointed  to  these  duties  by  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff.  The  duties  of  the  prefect  are 
thus  enumerated  by  the  constitution  of  Pius  X- — to 
grant  the  following  permissions:  to  preserve  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  in  those  churches  and  chapels 
which  are  not  so  authorized  by  common  law;  to  cele- 
brate Holy  Mass  in  private  chapels  with  care  that 
decorum  reigns  in  such  chapels;  to  celebrate  Mass  in 
these  chapels  on  Maundy  Thursday  and  the  three 
Masses  of  Christmas  at  midnight  accompanied  by  the 
distribution  of  the  Holy  Eucharist ;  to  erect  altars  for 
celebration  in  the  open  air ;  to  regulate  celebration  be- 
fore sunrise  or  in  the  afternoon;  to  wear  a  calotte  or 
wig  during  the  celebration  of  the  holy  mysteries  or 

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THE  VATICAN 

in  distributing  the  Holy  Eucharist;  to  a  blind  or 
almost  blind  priest  the  right  to  celebrate  the  Votive 
Mass  of  the  Holy  Virgin ;  to  celebrate  the  Holy  Sac- 
rifice on  ship-board;  to  consecrate  a  bishop  on  other 
days  than  those  established  by  the  Roman  Pontifical; 
to  confer  holy  orders  extra  tempora,  that  is,  on  other 
than  the  usual  dates;  to  exempt  the  faithful  and  re- 
ligious congregations,  whenever  it  is  considered  neces- 
sary, from  the  Eucharistic  fast. 

IV.  The  Council.  The  Council  of  Trent  in  its 
twenty-fifth  session  asked  the  Holy  Father  to  provide 
a  means  of  clearing  up  the  difficulties  and  doubts 
born  of  the  interpretation  and  the  application  of  the 
decisions  of  the  Council.  Hence,  on  August  2,  1564, 
in  the  Bull  Alias  nos,  Pius  IV  charged  a  commission 
of  eight  cardinals  with  the  execution  of  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  and  reserved  for  himself  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  text  of  these  laws.  Pius  V  and  Gregory 
XIII  enlarged  the  powers  of  the  new  congregation, 
but  it  solved  only  the  more  simple  cases  of  interpreta- 
tion, leaving  the  more  difficult  ones  to  the  Pope  him- 
self. Sixtus  V,  in  his  Bull  Immensa,  charged  the 
congregation  with  the  interpretation  of  the  discipli- 
nary decrees  of  the  Council,  reserving  for  himself 
the  interpretation  of  the  dogmatic  chapters.  Since 
then,  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Council  has  be- 
come a  sort  of  arbiter  of  all  ecclesiastic  discipline. 
The  Constitution  Sapienti  enumerates  the  present 
functions  and  powers  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council.  In  the  first  place,  to  it  is  confided  affairs 
relating  to  the  general  discipline  of  the  secular  clergy 

70 


THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

and  of  Christian  peoples.  Under  its  authority  come 
questions  of  fasting,  tithes,  the  observance  of  festivals, 
the  rules  concerning  vicars  and  canons,  pious  associ- 
ations and  unions,  pious  bequests,  charitable  societies, 
the  honoraria  of  the  Mass,  benefices,  clerkships,  ec- 
clesiastical property,  pecuniary  matters,  diocesan 
taxes,  clerical  immunity,  modification  of  the  condi- 
tions required  for  obtaining  a  benefice  where  the 
granting  thereof  belongs  to  the  ordinary,  and  the 
holding  and  revising  the  work  of  councils,  episcopal 
assemblies  and  conferences. 

This  congregation  is  also  a  competent  and  legiti- 
mate tribunal  for  the  examination  and  decision  of  all 
cases  relating  to  the  affairs  which  come  under  its 
supervision,  when  it  judges  best  to  treat  them  in  a 
disciplinary  manner,  or,  to  employ  the  regular  term, 
in  linea  disciplinary.  Cases  of  another  nature  are  re- 
ferred to  the  Holy  Roman  Rota. 

V.  The  Congregation  of  Religious.  Sixtus  V 
made  this  congregation  distinct  from  that  which  at- 
tended to  the  affairs  of  the  bishops.  But  in  1601, 
Clement  VIII  united  these  two  congregations  in  a 
single  one,  which  he  called  the  Congregation  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars.  Its  jurisdiction  was  im- 
mense, as  it  had  to  treat  matters  of  episcopal  adminis- 
tration in  all  the  dioceses,  differences  between  the 
bishops  and  the  religious  or  between  different  reli- 
gious houses,  and  also  all  the  affairs  of  religious 
persons.  Pius  X  separated  the  Congregation  of 
Regulars  from  all  the  others  and  fixed  in  these  terms 
its  jurisdiction  and  its  powers: 
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THE  VATICAN 

"This  congregation  has  a  unique  jurisdiction  over  all  that 
concerns  religious  persons  of  both  sexes  who  take  vows, 
either  solemn  or  simple ;  those  who,  though  they  may  not  have 
taken  vows,  nevertheless  live  in  common  like  religious ;  and 
the  secular  Third  Orders.  The  congregation  exercises  au- 
thority whether  the  matter  interests  the  religious  alone  or 
in  relation  with  others.  Consequently,  this  congregation 
regulates  all  questions  which  arise  either  between  the  bishops 
and  religious  of  the  two  sexes  or  between  the  religious  per- 
sons themselves.  It  is  a  tribunal  competent  in  all  cases  of 
a  disciplinary  nature,  whether  the  religious  be  plaintiff  or 
defendant.  Other  cases,  except  those  which  concern  the 
Holy  Office,  are  referred  to  the  Holy  Roman  Rota.  This 
congregation  may  also  accord  dispensations  to  religious  sub- 
ject to  the  common  law." 

The  following  are  specimen  decrees  issued  by  this 
congregation : 

January  19,  1909.  The  Decree  Perpensis,  issued 
by  Leo  XIII  on  May  3,  1902,  extends  to  all  convents 
of  women  the  very  wise  rules  imposed  on  all  men's 
religious  orders  by  the  Decree  Neminem  latet  of 
March  19,  1857,  concerning  the  final  admission  of  a 
female  candidate  to  a  religious  institution.  Accord- 
ing to  these  decrees,  a  full  year  of  novitiate  is  neces- 
sary, followed  by  three  years  of  the  simple  vows, 
before  permission  is  given  to  take  the  solemn  vows; 
and  also  before  vows  are  actually  taken,  the  bishop 
should  question  the  Sisters  and  make  himself  sure  of 
their  real  wishes  in  the  matter,  and  that  they  are  per- 
fectly free  in  their  choice.  This  is  called  the  canonical 
examination.  The  Sacred  Congregation  was  asked 
whether  it  was  necessary  to  repeat  this  canonical 

12 


THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

examination  before  the  second  profession  when  the 
solemn  vows  are  taken;  after  laying  the  matter  be- 
fore the  Holy  Father  himself,  the  congregation  re- 
plied in  the  affirmative. 

July  30,  1909.  The  congregation  prescribes  these 
rules  concerning  debts  and  pecuniary  obligations  as- 
sumed by  religious  families:  No  local  or  provincial 
house,  or  mother-house  may  go  into  serious  debt 
without  the  informal  authorization  of  its  council  and 
the  approval  of  its  superior  council.  Serious  indebt- 
edness means  a  sum  ranging  from  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  dollars  for  a  local  house,  and  two  hun- 
dred to  one  thousand  for  a  provincial  house,  and  from 
one  to  two  thousand  dollars  for  a  mother  chapter. 
If  greater  indebtedness  than  this  is  to  be  incurred, 
over  and  above  the  consent  of  the  superior  council 
of  the  institution,  the  express  permission  of  the  Holy 
See  must  also  be  obtained.  A  new  foundation  can- 
not be  begun  unless  there  is  in  bank  enough  money 
to  complete  it.  Funds  given  for  Masses  may  not  be 
employed  for  this  purpose,  unless  all  the  required 
Masses  have  been  celebrated.  The  dowry  of  a  reli- 
gious must  be  kept  intact  so  long  as  the  Sister  lives. 
For  the  alienation  of  even  a  single  dowry,  the  per- 
mission of  the  Holy  See  must  be  obtained. 

September  7,  1909.  Religious  destined  for  the 
priesthood  should  be  versed  not  only  in  theology, 
philosophy  and  Latin,  but  should  also  have  completed 
courses  in  primary  work  and  the  humanities  as  taught 
in  the  well-organized  seminaries  of  their  country. 
The  superiors  should  give  them,  before  ordination, 

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THE  VATICAN 

certificates  for  all  these  studies,  stating  the  time  they 
have  devoted  to  them,  the  schools  which  they  have 
attended  and  the  marks  received  at  their  examinations. 

VI.  Propaganda.  Propaganda  has  jurisdiction 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  world ;  that  is  to  say,  all 
the  mission  countries,  or,  in  other  words,  all  those 
regions  where  an  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  is  not  yet 
regularly  organized.  Consequently,  it  has  authority 
over  all  Asia,  except  the  Bishopric  of  Goa  (the  Portu- 
guese possessions  in  India)  ;  all  Africa,  except  Al- 
geria and  the  Dioceses  of  Carthage  and  Angola;  all 
Oceanica,  except  the  Philippines;  a  part  of  South 
America,  Central  America,  several  islands  of  the 
Antilles,  Mexico  and  Alaska.  In  Europe,  it  has 
under  its  care  the  Catholic  dioceses  of  Russia,  the 
Balkan  States,  a  part  of  Germany,  Gibraltar  and 
parts  of  Switzerland. 

Since  its  foundation  by  Gregory  XV,  by  the  Bull 
'InscrutdbiU  divina  providentia,  June  22,  1622,  the 
Propaganda  has  carried  on  all  its  work  gratuitously 
and  even  provided  funds  for  poor  missions.  In  order 
that  it  may  be  in  a  position  to  meet  all  these  expenses, 
the  Popes  and  cardinals  have  vied  with  one  another 
to  provide  money  for  it.  The  congregation  was 
nearly  ruined  by  the  French  occupation  of  Rome  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  But  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  congregation  nearly  rebuilt 
its  fortunes,  thanks  to  the  aid  of  Catholic  Christianity 
at  large  and  especially  to  the  organization  known  as 
the  Propaganda  of  the  Faith,  created  at  Lyons  in 
1822,  and  that  of  the  Holy  Infancy,  established  in 

74 


THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

Paris  in  1843.  But  in  1884,  the  Italian  government 
threatened  its  existence. 

The  law  passed  on  June  18,  1873,  by  the  Italian 
Parliament,  required  the  ecclesiastical  organizations 
of  Rome  to  convert  their  real  estate  into  Italian  state 
bonds,  and  in  1880,  the  Italian  government  advertised 
for  sale  all  the  property  of  Propaganda.  The  con- 
gregation protested,  declaring  that  this  property,  by 
the  nature  of  its  origin  and  the  objects  for  which  its 
revenues  were  to  be  employed,  belonged  to  Chris- 
tianity. A  law  suit  followed,  which  was  finally  lost 
by  the  congregation  in  January,  1884.  Then  it  was 
that  Signer  Rugger o  Bonghi,  the  author  of  "The  Law 
of  Guarantees,"  which  confirmed  the  Pope  in  the 
rights  and  prerogatives  of  sovereignty,  et  cetera,  with 
a  loyalty  and  a  clearness  of  vision,  alas,  too  late, 
wrote:  "In  paralyzing  and  retarding  the  activity  of 
Propaganda,  harm  is  done  to  humanity,  civilization 
and  Italy."  Thereupon,  protests  poured  in  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  These  were  bound  together  in 
two  large  volumes  and  laid  before  the  Italian  govern- 
ment, which,  however,  paid  no  attention  to  this  disap- 
proval of  its  course  by  the  Christian  world.  But  the 
persecution  of  the  government  did  not  stop  here.  Xo 
gift  or  legacy  can  be  made  to  Propaganda  without  the 
authorization  of  the  Italian  government,  and  when 
this  permission  is  given,  the  money  must  be  paid  into 
the  Royal  Treasury  and  converted  into  state  bonds. 

Thus,  in  order  to  have  free  control  of  these  funds 
received  from  the  Catholics  of  the  world,  and  to  escape 
Italian  supervision,  the  Propaganda  has  established 

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THE  VATICAN 

twenty-three  proxies  outside  of  Italy.  The  Papal 
nuncios,  the  bishops  and  the  vicars  apostolic  central- 
ize in  their  hands  all  the  gifts  and  legacies  intended 
for  the  congregation.  There  are  eleven  of  these 
agencies  in  Europe,  three  in  Asia,  one  in  Africa,  seven 
in  America  and  one  in  Australia.  The  income  of 
Propaganda  is  now  estimated  to  be  about  $120,000  a 
year,  a  very  small  sum  when  we  bear  in  mind  all  the 
expenses  of  this  congregation.  For  instance,  its 
Urban  College  at  Rome,  where  young  ecclesiastics 
are  educated  for  mission  work,  alone  costs  some 
$34,000.  The  missions  of  the  Oriental  Rite  are  also 
a  heavy  charge  for  Propaganda.  It  furnishes  those 
countries  the  priests  they  need,  pays  their  expenses 
to  and  from  Rome,  provides  for  their  sojourn  in  Rome 
while  they  are  studying,  and  in  addition  furnishes 
them  with  money  for  charitable  purposes.  This  spe- 
cial and  general  work  absorbs  each  year  more  than 
the  income  of  Propaganda. 

In  order  to  expedite  the  business  of  Propaganda, 
the  congregation  is  divided  into  two  principal  sec- 
tions, one  having  to  do  with  the  countries  of  the  Latin 
Rite  and  the  other  with  those  of  the  Oriental  Rite. 
The  recent  constitution  fixes  in  these  terms  the  powers 
of  Propaganda: 

"The  jurisdiction  of  this  Sacred  Congregation  is  limited 
to  those  countries  where,  the  Sacred  Hierarchy  not  having 
been  established,  the  mission  state  continues.  But  in  the 
case  of  several  countries  provided  with  a  hierarchy  where 
the  new  organization  is  only  at  its  beginning,  Propaganda 
still  has  control.  But  the  following  regions  are  henceforth 

76 


THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

withdrawn  from  the  authority  of  Propaganda  and  subjected 
to  the  common  law  of  the  Church:  in  Europe,  the  ecclesi- 
astical provinces  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Holland  and 
the  Diocese  of  Luxemburg;  in  America,  the  ecclesiastical 
provinces  of  Canada,  Newfoundland,  and  the  United  States. 
Henceforth,  the  affairs  of  these  regions  are  to  be  distributed 
among  the  other  congregations,  according  to  the  nature  of 
such  affairs." 

The  constitution  then  goes  on  to  settle  many  details 
of  the  relations  of  this  congregation  with  the  other 
congregations. 

VII.  The  Index.  From  the  very  beginning  of 
its  existence,  the  Church  condemned  the  writings  of 
the  heresiarchs  and  all  bad  books.  But  the  invention 
of  printing  having  multiplied  the  evil  effects  of  bad 
books,  the  situation  called  for  still  greater  attention 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  in  this  direction.  So,  in 
order  to  protect  the  faithful  from  these  evil  publica- 
tions, several  catalogues  or  indexes  of  these  publi- 
cations were  drawn  up  since  the  appearance  of  the 
first  one  prepared  by  the  Holy  Office  in  1557  under 
orders  of  Paul  IV.  The  constitution  of  Leo  XIII, 
Offlciorum  de  numero,  January  25,  1897,  established 
the  rules  which  reformed  the  code  of  penalties  of  the 
Index  and  the  modus  operand*  of  the  condemnation 
of  books.  Greater  powers  are  now  given  to  the 
bishops  in  this  matter.  On  September  27,  1900,  the 
new  catalogue  of  prohibited  books  was  promulgated 
at  Rome  by  the  Brief  Romani  pontifices.  These  are 
the  words  of  His  Holiness  Pius  X,  defining  the  duties 
of  the  present  Congregation  of  the  Index: 

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THE  VATICAN 

"Henceforth,  this  congregation  will  examine  with  care  all 
the  denounced  books  to  which  its  attention  has  been  called; 
it  will,  if  possible,  proscribe  them;  it  will  grant  dispensa- 
tions in  this  connection ;  it  will  take  the  initiative  in  the 
attempt  to  find  the  best  way  to  discover  all  kinds  of  publica- 
tions likely  to  deserve  condemnation;  it  will  remind  the 
ordinaries  of  their  important  duty  to  proceed  with  vigor 
against  all  dangerous  writings  and  to  denounce  them  to  the 
Holy  See  in  accordance  with  the  constitution  of  January  J25, 
1907,  given  above.  As  the  chief  aim  of  the  interdiction  of 
books  is  the  defense  of  Catholic  Faith,  which  is  the  reason 
for  the  existence  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office,  we 
decree  that  in  future,  as  regards  everything  pertaining  to  the 
prohibition  of  evil  books,  and  for  that  alone,  there  be  con- 
sultation between  the  cardinals  and  other  officials  of  the  two 
congregations,  and,  furthermore,  that  all  parties  act  with 
secrecy  in  these  matters." 

VIII.  Rites.  As  the  rites  and  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Church  reflect  its  dogma  and  its  faith,  it  is  very 
essential  that  they  be  watched  over  and  be  brought 
into  unity  in  so  far  as  possible,  just  as  faith  is  one  in 
the  Church. 

The  Constitution  Sapienti  thus  enumerates  the 
powers  of  the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Rites : 

"The  Sacred  Congregation  examines  and  regulates  every- 
thing closely  associated  with  the  sacred  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Latin  Church,  but  is  not  concerned  about  those  things 
which  only  indirectly  affect  the  rites,  such  as,  for  example, 
the  rules  governing  precedence,  etc.  Its  care  is  chiefly  to 
see  that  the  sacred  rites  and  ceremonies  are  faithfully  ob- 
served in  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments,  and  the  celebration  of  divine  service, — 

78 


THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

in  a  word,  in  everything  concerning  worship  in  the  Latin 
Church.  It  may,  further,  accord  necessary  dispensations, 
grant  honorary  tokens  or  privileges,  whether  personal  and 
temporary,  or  local  and  perpetual,  which  are  connected  with 
the  sacred  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  it  will  have  a  care  that 
no  abuses  enter  into  this  matter.  And  finally,  it  should 
occupy  itself  with  everything  which  in  any  way  whatsoever 
concerns  the  beatification  and  the  canonization  of  saints,  and 
everything  which  concerns  sacred  relics." 

In  order  to  bring  about  unity  in  the  music  of  church 
ceremonies,  Pius  X  ordered  that  the  Vatican  Printing 
Office  bring  out  an  official  edition  of  the  liturgical 
books,  that  is,  of  the  Gradual  for  Mass  and  the  Ves- 
perall  for  the  canonical  hours.  Publishers  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  will  follow,  in  their  edition  of  these  litur- 
gical books,  the  Vatican  edition,  both  as  regards  text 
and  music. 

The  beatification  and  canonization  of  saints  imposes 
great  labor  on  the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Rites. 
Its  prudent  deliberation  in  this  important  matter  is 
proverbial.  It  will  be  found  interesting  to  give 
briefly  the  slow  stages  through  which  an  act  of  canon- 
ization has  to  go  before  the  glorious  end  is  reached. 
In  the  first  place,  the  person  proposed  for  canoniza- 
tion is  most  closely  scrutinized  in  every  particular. 
The  Church  has  confided  this  grave  task  to  a  prelate, 
who  throughout  the  whole  examination  acts  the  part 
of  the  "Devil's  Advocate,"  or  the  "Promoter  of  the 
Faith."  The  whole  proceeding  is  conducted  in  ju- 
dicial form,  with  the  aid  of  learned  men.  In  the 
second  place,  a  strict  inquiry  is  instituted  by  the  ordi- 

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nary  in  the  country  where  the  candidate  died,  and  all 
the  papers  bearing  on  this  inquiry  are  sent  to  Rome 
and  verified  by  the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Rites.  If 
this  examination  is  favorable,  the  demand  is  recog- 
nized and  the  candidate  is  accorded  the  title  of  Vener- 
able. Then  the  first  formal  process  begins.  The 
question  for  decision  is:  Whether  the  Venerable  has 
ever  been  an  object  of  public  veneration;  if  so,  this 
alone  would  suffice  to  check  the  whole  affair.  This 
step  is  called  the  process  of  non  cultu,  and  is  immedi- 
ately followed  by  the  process  concerning  the  candi- 
date's general  reputation  for  holiness.  Then  comes 
the  more  solemn  and  formal  process  concerning  the 
Venerable's  heroic  exercise  of  the  private  virtues,  fol- 
lowed by  the  first  "ante-preparatory"  congregation 
in  the  presence  of  the  cardinal  ponent,  or  advocate, 
who  supports  the  candidate's  claim;  then  the  congre- 
gation called  "preparatory,"  when  the  consulters,  a 
body  of  officials  connected  with  the  congregation,  ex- 
plain their  votes  in  the  presence  of  the  cardinals ;  and 
finally,  the  general  congregation,  with  the  Pope  pre- 
siding, when  the  cardinals,  as  well  as  the  consulters, 
declare  their  votes.  A  month  later,  the  Sovereign 
Pontiff  himself  makes  known  his  opinion.  But  this 
is  not  the  end  of  the  case. 

A  fourth  process  is  now  begun,  the  most  thorough 
of  all,  in  which  the  question  of  the  nature  and  value 
of  the  miracles  performed  by  the  Venerable  is  exam- 
ined, who,  in  order  to  be  beatified,  must  have  per- 
formed at  least  two  well-authenticated  ones.  This 
all-important  question  is  weighed  at  three  meetings  of 

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the  body  of  cardinals — at  the  ante-preparatory,  the 
preparatory,  and  the  general  coram  sanctissimo ,  which 
takes  place  in  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Father.  If 
the  Pope  again  favors  the  candidate,  a  plenary  con- 
gregation is  again  held  in  his  presence,  when  for  the 
last  time  the  question  is  asked  whether  it  is  perfectly 
safe  to  proceed  to  the  beatification  of  the  Venerable. 
This  is  called  the  de  tuto  congregation,  when,  a  month 
later,  the  Pope,  who  has  not  pronounced  his  final 
opinion,  approves  the  measure,  and  the  ceremony  of 
beatification  follows.  But  in  order  to  secure  canon- 
ization, two  more  miracles  must  be  proved,  which  are 
again  examined  as  before  by  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  in  a  new  series  of  meetings,  ante-preparatory, 
preparatory  and  general,  closing  with  a  de  tuto.  But 
before  the  canonization  takes  place,  two  consistories 
must  be  held  in  which  in  the  intervals  between  the 
ceremonies,  an  advocate  pleads  the  cause  of  the  pro- 
posed saint,  and  the  bishops  present  at  Rome  for  the 
second  consistory  give  their  placet.  Then,  and  only 
then,  is  it  that  the  Holy  Father  himself  solemnly  in- 
scribes the  Blessed  in  the  catalogue  of  saints. 

At  the  time  of  the  beatification  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
there  was  considerable  comment  apropos  of  the  re- 
quired miracles.  It  should  be  stated  in  this  connection 
that  the  Church  is  very  severe  in  the  matter  of  mira- 
cles :  They  must  be  unquestionable.  There  are  seven 
conditions  which  must  be  fulfilled:  1.  The  disease, 
in  the  case  of  a  miracle  performed  on  a  sick  person, 
must  be  grave,  inveterate,  incurable,  or  at  least  diffi- 
cult to  cure  by  means  of  remedies,  and  then  only  after 

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a  long  lapse  of  time.  2.  The  disease  should  not  have 
reached  its  decline  so  that  the  cure  cannot  be  attrib- 
uted to  natural  development.  3.  No  remedies  must 
have  been  previously  administered,  or  if  any  have 
been  administered,  it  must  be  proved  by  time  and 
circumstances  that  these  remedies  had  no  influence  on 
the  cure.  4.  The  cure  must  be  sudden;  the  signs  of 
the  illness  must  not  diminish  with  time  and  by  de- 
grees, as  in  a  natural  sickness.  5.  The  cure  must  be 
entire  and  complete.  6.  It  must  not  result  from  a 
crisis  or  a  sudden  change  which  could  of  itself  produce 
the  result.  7.  The  cure  must  be  permanent,  and 
there  must  be  no  return  of  the  disease.  These  re- 
quirements show  the  prudence  and  rigor  which  the 
Church  displays  in  its  effort  to  authenticate  miracu- 
lous cures. 

We  may  add  that  the  impressive  ceremonies  attend- 
ing beatification  and  canonization  are  held  in  St. 
Peter's,  which  is  magnificently  decorated  on  such 
occasions.  It  should  be  noted,  by  the  way,  that  the 
Catholic  Church  alone  dares  canonize  saints  and  say 
to  the  world :  "See,  these  are  the  best  of  my  children, 
whom  I  place  on  the  high  altar,  that  you  may  admire 
them  and  borrow  from  their  beautiful  lives  what  is 
lacking  in  your  own ;  for  as  they  have  lived  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  and  the  faith  of  Catholic 
morality,  they  are  worthy  to  be  your  models." 

IX.  Ceremonies.  This  Sacred  Congregation,  says 
the  Constitution  Sapienti,  "continues  to  enjoy  the 
rights  which  have  always  belonged  to  it,  that  is,  to 
regulate  the  ceremonies  which  should  be  observed  in 


THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

the  Pontifical  chapel  and  court,  as  well  as  in  the  sacred 
functions  which  the  cardinals  perform  outside  of  the 
Pontifical  chapel;  and  to  settle  questions  of  prece- 
dence either  among  the  cardinals  or  among  the  am- 
bassadors from  foreign  nations  to  the  Holy  See." 

X.  Extraordinary     Ecclesiastical     Affairs.     The 
scope  of  this  body  is  thus  defined  in  Pius  X's  consti- 
tution:    "It  has  to  do  only  with  matters  which  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  refers  to  its  examination  through 
the  cardinal  secretary  of  state;  especially  with  the 
most    important   diplomatic   problems    between   the 
Vatican  and  the  governments  of  the  world." 

XI.  Studies.     "To  this  congregation  is  confided 
the  organization  of  the  curricula  in  the  Catholic  uni- 
versities and  schools  of  all  grades.     It  examines  and 
approves  or  rejects,  as  the  case  may  be,  all  proposals 
for  the  foundation  of  new  institutions,  and  confers 
the  right  to  grant  degrees,  which  it  may  itself  grant 
in  the  case  of  remarkable  personages." 

XII.  The  Congregation  of  Loreto.     This  congre- 
gation has  in  its  care  the  famous  sanctuary  of  Our 
Lady  of  Loreto  near  Ancona,  Italy.     Its  business  is 
transacted  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  and 
its  prefect  is  that  of  the  council.     Its  former  exten- 
sive jurisdiction  over  the  Holy  House  of  Loreto  and 
its  property  has  been  much  restricted  so  that  it  is  now 
chiefly  concerned  with  the  restoration  of  the  basilica, 
and  the  supervision  of  pilgrimages  to  the  shrine. 

XIII.  The   Congregation  of  the  Fabric  of  St. 
Peter's.     This  congregation  originated  with  the  plan 
of  Julius  II  for  building  the  new  basilica  of  St.  Peter's 

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with  Bramante  as  architect;  and  a  special  congrega- 
tion under  this  title  was  formed  by  Clement  VIII  to 
carry  on  the  great  work.  The  new  constitution  of 
Pius  X  provides  that  its  administration  shall  consist 
only  in  the  care  of  the  property  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  basilica. 

The  constitution  of  Pius  X  also,  as  we  have  already 
said,  established  three  tribunals  of  the  Curia: 

I.  The  Sacred  Penitentiaria.     The  jurisdiction  of 
this  sacred  tribunal  has  been  limited  to  jurisdiction  in 
internal  matters   only.     Dispensations   from  matri- 
monial impediments  in  relation  to  external  jurisdic- 
tion have  been  confided  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sacraments.     But  this  tribunal  accords  absolutions, 
dispensations,  commutations,  validations  in  matters  of 
impediments  and  condonations,  and  also  examines  and 
decides  cases  of  conscience.     For  instance,  a  decree 
of  this  tribunal,  issued  on  January  16,  1909,  granted 
ample  powers  to  the  bishops  of  France  to  deal  with 
the  numerous  cases  of  conscience  occasioned  by  the 
sale  of  ecclesiastical  lands  in  connection  with  the  re- 
cent separation  laws. 

II.  The  Sacred  Roman  Rota.     The  Tribunal  of 
the  Rota  is  very  ancient.     In  order  to  lighten  the 
labors  of  the  consistories,  the  Popes,  long  before  the 
creation   of   the    congregations,    entrusted   some   of 
the  cases  which  were  laid  before  them  to  chaplains 
occupying  a  rank  in  the  Roman  Curia  immediately 
after   cardinals.     These    cases    were   examined    and 
when  ready  for  consideration  were  laid  before  the 
Pope,  who  passed  judgment.     Thus  was  established 

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a  tribunal  or  court,  which,  to  distinguish  it  from  that 
of  the  cardinals,  was  called  the  Rota,  probably  from 
the  round  table  (rota)  at  which  the  judges  sat.  The 
Tribunal  of  the  Rota,  especially  during  the  sojourn 
of  the  Popes  at  Avignon,  1309-1377,  played  the  im- 
portant part  of  a  court  of  justice,  several  of  whose 
decisions,  inserted  in  the  "Corpus  Juris,"  have  the 
force  of  law.  It  is  generally  admitted  that,  accom- 
panied in  all  cases  by  the  reasons  which  caused  the 
decisions  to  be  made,  they  form  one  of  the  richest 
treasures  of  jurisprudence  which  exist.  Pius  X 
refers  to  it  as  having  been  "loaded  with  praise  in  the 
past"  (anteactis  temporibus  omni  laude  cumulatum), 
and  several  Popes — Sixtus  IV,  Clement  X  and  Alex- 
ander VIII — call  it  "The  Supreme  Court  of  the 
Christian  World."  It  has  also  been  surnamed  "The 
Refuge  of  Justice,"  and  recourse  is  had  to  it  from  all 
parts  of  Christendom.  Thence,  doubtless,  comes  the 
usage  of  selecting  its  judges  from  the  different  Chris- 
tian nations. 

Little  by  little,  the  Roman  congregations  have 
found  themselves  charged  with  the  cases  which  used 
to  be  examined  by  the  Tribunal  of  the  Rota,  while  to 
the  latter  were  left  matters  pertaining  to  the  old  Pon- 
tifical States.  But  as  these  States  ceased  to  exist  in 
1870,  the  once  busy  tribunal  was  left  with  almost 
nothing  to  do.  But  the  Constitution  Sapienti  has 
restored  this  venerable  body  to  a  part  at  least  of  its 
old  activity.  "Basing  our  action  on  that  of  our  prede- 
cessors, Sixtus  V,  Innocent  XII  and  Pius  VI,  we 
order  and  ordain  that  all  contentious  matters,  both 

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civil  and  criminal,  which  call  for  judicial  action,  with 
witnesses,  testimony,  et  cetera,  be  referred  to  the 
Tribunal  of  the  Rota";  and  in  the  appendix  of  this 
constitution  is  a  special  law  which  regulates  the  re- 
organization of  the  Rota.  "The  Sacred  Roman  Rota 
is  composed  of  ten  prelates,  called  auditors,  chosen  by 
the  Roman  Pontiff.  They  must  be  priests  and  of 
mature  age,  doctors  of  at  least  theology  and  canon 
law,  notable  for  the  dignity  of  their  lives,  their  pru- 
dence and  their  juridical  knowledge.  At  the  age  of 
seventy-five,  they  become  emeriti  and  cease  to  be 
active  judges.  The  body  is  presided  over  by  a  dean, 
who  is  only  the  first  among  equals.  Auditors  who 
violate  secrecy  or  who,  through  culpable  negligence 
or  deceit,  cause  injury  to  the  contesting  parties,  are 
required  to  make  good  this  damage;  and  they  may 
be  punished  either  on  the  demand  of  the  injured  party, 
or  by  the  Apostolic  Signatura  (which  is  described 
below),  the  sentence  being  confirmed  by  His  Holi- 
ness." All  the  officers  connected  with  this  tribunal 
are  also  subjected  to  a  similar  severe  control.  "The 
Sacred  Rota  dispenses  justice  in  two  ways — either 
three  judges  sitting  in  turn,  or  the  whole  tribunal 
sitting.  The  opposing  parties  may  appear  in  person 
to  defend  their  cause  before  the  tribunal."  These 
various  stipulations  give  evidence  of  the  ardent  desire 
of  the  Church  that  its  justice  be  above  reproach,  as 
it  really  is. 

III.  The  Apostolic  Signatura.  This  was  formerly 
a  supreme  court  made  up  of  voting  prelates  and 
referendary  prelates,  both  named  by  the  Pope;  and 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

was  divided  into  two  chambers,  the  Papal  Signature 
of  Justice  and  the  Papal  Signature  of  Pardons.  The 
first  was  a  real  tribunal ;  the  second,  more  like  a  com- 
mission which  gave  its  opinion  on  pardons  and  favors 
to  be  conceded  by  the  Pope.  Since  1870,  it  has  had 
very  little  to  do,  but  remains  a  very  distinguished 
body,  being  composed  exclusively  of  cardinals.  Its 
jurisdiction  remains  the  same  today  as  in  the  past, 
that  is  to  say,  it  still  forms  a  court  of  appeal  from  the 
Tribunal  of  the  Rota,  in  grave  cases  specified  in  the 
recent  constitution. 

In  the  important  reforms  of  the  Roman  Curia  as 
described  in  the  Constitution  Sapienti,  Pius  X  has 
scarcely  touched  the  bureaus  or  offices  charged  with 
expediting  the  affairs  of  the  congregations  and  the 
tribunals.  He  has  done  little  else  than  simplify  the 
formalities,  some  of  which  were  very  antiquated,  as, 
for  instance,  the  special  form  of  writing  employed  for 
the  bulls,  which  necessitated  a  transcription  into 
modern  style.  But  these  modifications  enable  the 
six  bureaus  to  transact  their  business  much  more 
promptly  than  formerly. 

I.  The  Apostolic  Chancery.  The  chancery,  which 
prepares  and  sends  out  the  most  important  Pontifical 
documents,  is  a  very  ancient  institution  of  the  Church. 
It  occupies  itself  especially  with  the  Papal  bulls.  It 
may  be  explained,  by  the  way,  that  the  word  bull 
comes  from  the  lead  seal,  bulla,  in  Latin,  attached  to 
the  thick  parchment  on  which  the  document  is  written. 
This  seal  displays  the  heads  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
separated  by  a  Latin  cross.  The  direction  of  this 
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office  is  in  charge  of  a  cardinal  named  the  chancellor, 
who,  in  accordance  with  a  very  ancient  custom,  acts 
as  notary  or  proctor  in  the  Sacred  Consistories.  The 
Palace  of  the  Chancery,  built  by  the  distinguished 
Italian  architect  Bernini  (1598-1680),  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Rome  and  is  connected  with  the  beautiful 
Church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Damaso. 

II.  The  Apostolic  Dataria.  The  Dataria  or 
Datary  is  especially  the  organ  for  the  distribution  of 
indulgences,  or — the  term  is  still  used — "a  tribunal 
of  pardons."  It  acts  sometimes  as  a  "tribunal  of 
justice"  to  settle  difficulties  arising  from  the  grant- 
ing of  these  indulgences.  In  early  times,  its  sen- 
tences, considered  as  coming  from  the  Pope  himself, 
were  without  appeal.  It  was  instituted  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  under  Honorius  III,  and  then  formed 
only  a  division  of  the  chancery,  receiving  petitions  and 
dating  the  apostolic  concessions  in  reply  to  these  re- 
quests, whence  came  the  name,  Datary.  The  cardi- 
nal who  presides  over  this  bureau  holds  office  during 
the  whole  reign  of  the  Pope  who  appoints  him.  On 
the  death  of  the  Pontiff,  the  cardinal's  term  of  office 
ends  and  the  offices  of  the  Datary  are  closed  until  the 
election  of  the  new  Pope.  To  give  the  reader  an  idea 
of  the  amount  of  work  performed  by  this  bureau,  it 
suffices  to  say  that  the  petitions  in  the  archives  of  the 
Datary  from  the  Pontificate  of  Martin  V,  1417,  to 
that  of  Pius  VII,  1823,  fill  6,690  volumes! 

The  constitution  of  Pius  X  thus  defines  the  duties 
of  the  Datary  today : 

"Henceforth  its   only    charge   is   the   examination    of  the 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

fitness  of  candidates  for  non-consistorial  benefices  reserved 
for  the  Apostolic  See,  that  is  to  say,  ordinary  benefices,  such 
as  a  cure,  or  a  canonry,  whose  nomination  belongs  to  the 
Pope ;  to  draw  up  and  send  out  apostolic  letters  relative  to 
these  appointments ;  to  dispense  with  the  required  conditions 
for  obtaining  these  appointments;  and  to  see  that  the  pen- 
sions and  charges  which  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  imposes  on 
the  beneficiaries  are  paid  from  their  revenues." 

III.  The  Apostolic  Camera.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century,  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  who,  it 
is  said,  in  speaking  to  the  Emperor,  referred  to  Rome 
as  an  inheritance  and  to  Italy  as  his  land,  established 
a  college  of  seven  Defensores,  who  replaced  the  an- 
cient Arcarius,  or  treasurer  of  the  Palace  of  the 
Lateran,  and  who  were  to  have  charge  of  the  Patri- 
mony of  St.  Peter.  These  Defensores,  following  the 
example  of  the  Camera,  or  Imperial  Chamber  of 
the  Treasury,  took,  during  the  eighth  and  ninth  cen- 
turies the  title  of  Clerks  of  the  Chamber,  their  di- 
rector being  called  Camerarius,  and  later,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  Camerlengo, — names  which  are  still 
used  today.  In  1845,  Pius  IX  established  ministerial 
departments  analogous  to  those  found  in  modern  gov- 
ernments and  placed  a  clerk  of  the  Apostolic  Camera 
at  the  head  of  each  section  or  bureau  of  the  Interior 
Department  or  Ministry, — archives,  moneys  and  seals, 
arsenals,  roads  and  water-ways,  sanitation  and  the 
corps  of  public  servants.  But  as  the  Camera  had  no 
property  to  administer  after  the  changes  of  1870,  it 
had  become  scarcely  more  than  a  name  when  Pius  X 
gave  it  new  life  by  restoring  to  it  its  ancient  func- 

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tions:  "It  has  the  care  and  administration  of  the 
property  and  the  temporal  rights  of  the  Holy  See"; 
so  it  has  charge  of  the  Pontifical  Palaces  and  its  Car- 
dinal Camerlengo  is  confirmed  in  old  and  important 
duties.  He  it  is  who  officially  announces  the  demise 
of  the  Holy  Father,  assigns  a  clerk  to  duty  in  the 
different  offices  of  the  Apostolic  Palace,  directs  the 
obsequies  of  the  dead  Pope,  arranges  for  the  new 
Conclave,  directs  all  the  police  arrangements  of  this 
important  meeting,  and  to  him  is  confided  the  fisher- 
man's ring  and  all  the  seals  of  the  deceased  Pope, 
which  are  broken  when  the  cardinals  come  together. 
He  even  has  the  right  to  coin  money. 

The  Vice-Camerlengo,  the  most  important  person- 
age of  the  Curia  after  the  cardinals,  has  charge  of 
the  doors  of  the  Conclave  and  the  keys  of  the  chamber 
and  the  towers,  which  afford  access  to  the  world  with- 
out. At  the  general  councils,  the  Camera  and  the 
Prothonotaries  Apostolic,  have  charge  of  all  the  ma- 
terial apparatus  of  voting;  every  year,  too,  they  pre- 
sent, for  the  benediction  of  the  Pope,  the  Golden  Lady 
Rose,  which  is  then  sent  by  the  Pontiff  to  a  queen  or 
to  some  great  lady  who  has  merited  well  of  the 
Church. 

IV.  The  Secretariate  of  State.  This  office  is  di- 
vided into  three  sections.  The  first  section  has  to  do 
with  extraordinary  affairs  which  are  submitted  to 
the  examination  of  the  congregation  of  that  name. 
All  the  other  business  which  comes  to  this  office  is 
distributed  among  the  other  congregations  in  accord- 
ance with  their  character.  The  second  section  attends 

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THE  ROMAN  CURIA 

to  ordinary  business.  Among  other  things,  it  confers 
honorary  insignia,  on  ecclesiastics  or  civilians.  The 
third  section  attends  to  the  sending  out  of  the  apos- 
tolic briefs  handed  in  by  the  different  congregations. 

V  and  VI.  The  Secretariates  of  Briefs  to  Princes 
and  of  Latin  Letters.  Their  distinction  arises  from 
the  usage  introduced  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiffs  of 
sending  letters  or  briefs  to  princes,  bishops  and  per- 
sons of  consequence  whom  they  wish  to  honor.  After 
having  submitted  the  minutes  to  the  Holy  -Father,  the 
two  prelate  secretaries,  always  chosen  among  the  best 
Latinists  of  the  Curia,  write  the  briefs  on  parchment 
and  the  letters  on  special  paper.  The  former  are 
signed  by  the  Pope,  and  the  latter  receive  the  stamp 
of  the  fisherman's  ring  and  the  signature  of  the  secre- 
tary. The  sealed  envelopes  are  then  handed  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  who  sends  them  to  their  desti- 
nation by  nuncios  or  special  messengers.  Sometimes 
the  Pope  writes  these  letters  with  his  own  hand;  but 
such  communications  are  very  rare  and  are  a  great 
honor  to  him  who  receives  one.  The  writing  paper 
used  by  the  Holy  Father  has  a  special  water-mark,— 
the  portrait  of  the  Pontiff,  which  may  be  seen  very 
easily  when  the  sheet  is  held  up  to  the  light. 

In  this  connection,  we  may  give  this  paragraph  from 
the  constitution  of  Pius  X:  "Henceforth,  in  all  the 
apostolic  communications  sent  out  by  the  chancery  or 
the  datary,  the  year  will  no  longer  begin  with  the  In- 
carnation of  the  Lord,  that  is,  March  25,  but  with 
January  1."  This  shows  the  modern  and  business- 
like mind  of  the  ruling  Pontiff. 

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These  two  paragraphs  may  also  be  given  from  the 
same  great  document: 

"The  congregations,  tribunals  and  bureaus  men- 
tioned in  this  constitution  constitute  henceforth  the 
Roman  Curia. 

"In  all  the  congregations,  tribunals  and  bureaus 
mentioned  above,  care  will  be  taken  to  do  nothing  of 
extraordinary  importance  without  first  informing  us 
and  our  successors  after  us." 

This  Pontifical  act  will  certainly  be  one  of  the  most 
effective  of  the  reign  of  Pius  X,  and  will  remain,  dur- 
ing long  years,  the  law  of  the  Roman  Curia.  The 
similar  act  of  Sixtus  V,  which  established  the  first 
congregation,  January  22,  1588,  has  been  respected 
as  a  whole  during  more  than  three  centuries  and  has 
rendered  immense  service  to  the  Church.  These 
facts  well  illustrate  the  remarkable  continuity  and 
conservatism,  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

The  details  given  in  this  chapter,  new  to  many  even 
among  Catholics,  throw  a  fresh  light  on  the  character 
of  the  Holy  See  and  show  what  a  vast  work  it  is 
charged  with  by  the  faithful  the  world  over.  The  role 
of  the  Holy  Father  and  his  cardinals  at  the  Vatican 
is  perceived  to  be  not  only  that  of  pious  servants  of 
the  Cross  engaged  in  religious  devotion,  but  also  that 
of  busy  executives  and  able  functionaries  transacting 
the  important  business  of  a  great  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual state.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Vatican  is  the 
center  of  the  Catholic  world,  the  main-spring  and 
regulator  of  all  that  occurs  therein ;  and  this  great  fact 

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will  make  even  a  deeper  impression  as  we  examine,  in 
the  second  part  of  this  volume,  the  physiognomy  of 
the  Church  in  the  different  countries  of  the  world. 


PART  II 


CHAPTER  V 


The  Diocese  as  a  Basis  of  Ecclesiastical  Administration — The 
Eastern  Church  Situation — The  Growth  of  the  Church — 
Catholic  Missions — The  Secular  Clergy — The  Diocesan 
Seminaries — Parochialism — The  Religious  Orders. 

THE  diocese  forms  the  basis  of  the  organization  and 
division  of  the  Catholic  world.  It  must  form  a  com- 
plete entity  and  be  self-sufficient  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  bishop,  assisted  by  his  vicars  general  and 
surrounded  by  his  canons.  The  diocese  is  subdivided, 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  faithful,  into  parishes, 
administered  by  a  parish  priest  or  rector  assisted  by 
his  curates.  According  to  ecclesiastical  law  the  rec- 
tors who  are  members  of  the  secular  clergy  may  be 
permanent,  whereas  those  who  belong  to  a  religious 
order  can  be  revoked  at  any  time  by  their  own  su- 
periors. 

The  bishop  has  the  entire  responsibility  of  his  dio- 
cese; he  must  govern  it  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church,  in  submission  to  the  instructions  of  the  Pope, 
to  whom  he  must  account  regarding  his  administra- 
tion, every  five  years.  One  of  his  chief  duties  is  to 
publish  throughout  his  diocese  the  utterances  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff — letters,  bulls,  encyclicals,  et  cet- 

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era — and  to  enforce  their  prescriptions.  His  power, 
within  the  limits  of  his  diocese,  is  ordinary,  in  that  it 
is  a  direct  effect  of  his  position  as  bishop,  and  is  not 
merely  delegated;  that  is  to  say,  the  bishop  does  not 
act  merely  in  the  name  of  the  Pope  though  subject 
to  his  control  and  authority.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, which  exceed  the  ordinary  powers  of  a  bishop, 
inasmuch  as  they  deal  with  the  general  discipline  of 
the  Church,  the  bishops  are  given  special  powers  as 
Papal  representatives.  The  supervision  of  exempted 
monasteries,  that  is,  monasteries  which  depend  di- 
rectly upon  the  Papal  authority  and  are  not  subject 
to  diocesan  control,  is  a  case  in  which  such  special 
powers  are  delegated  to  the  bishop.  The  grouping 
of  several  dioceses  constitutes  an  ecclesiastical  pro- 
vince under  the  direction,  formerly  effective,  now 
rather  nomical,  of  an  archbishop. 

The  primate  formerly  supervised  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent several  ecclesiastical  provinces  belonging  to  the 
same  nation.  At  present,  however,  the  title  has  be- 
come merely  an  honorary  one,  like  that  of  patriarch,— 
except  in  the  East  here  the  patriarchs  of  the  Uniat 
Eastern  Churches  still  possess  real  authority  over 
their  suffragans. 

There  are  now  throughout  the  world — according 
to  official  lists  (Gerarchia  Catolica,  1909)  published 
with  the  approval  of  the  Vatican — ten  patriarchal 
sees,  oriental  or  Latin,  now  filled  either  by  oriental 
titulars  who  really  reside  in  the  Orient  and  exercise 
their  office  there,  or  by  Latin  titulars  who  simply 
bear  an  honorary  title;  and  1,316  bishops  or  prelates 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

not  consecrated  as  bishops,  but  residential,  that  is 
to  say,  governing  a  diocese  or  some  equivalent 
ecclesiastical  circumscription,  such  as  a  vicariate 
apostolic,  and  residing  within  its  limits.  There  are, 
moreover,  457  titular  bishops,  bearing  the  titles  of 
suppressed  bishoprics,  who  have  received  episcopal 
consecration,  but  who  have  for  the  time  being  no  dio- 
cese. We  have  therefore  1,783  bishops  or  prelates 
forming,  in  union  with  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  Su- 
preme Pastor  of  all,  the  teaching  and  governing 
body  of  the  Church. 

The  ecclesiastical  constituencies  provided  with  a 
residential  bishop  or  prelate,  are  distributed  as  fol- 
lows : 

966  Latin  bishoprics,  including  archbishops  and  pa- 
triarchs ; 

92  Greek  Uniat  or  oriental  bishoprics,  including 
also  archbishoprics  and  patriarchates; 

21  abbeys  and  prelatures  nullius,  or  ecclesiastical 
jurisdictions  bearing  the  title  of  bishoprics  but  inde- 
pendent of  the  ordinary  hierarchy,  and  directly  sub- 
ject to  Rome  only; 

12  delegations  apostolic; 

160  vicariates  apostolic; 

62  prefectures  apostolic. 

The  last  two  ecclesiastical  administrations  hardly 
exist  outside  foreign  missions.  Vicariates  apostolic 
are  organized  very  much  on  the  model  of  dioceses; 
prefectures  apostolic  are  only  in  the  growing  stage 
as  regards  formation  and  organization,  or  they  are  of 
limited  extent. 

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As  has  been  seen,  by  the  above  table,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish in  the  Church,  three  portions,  rather  ficti- 
tious than  real:  the  Latin  Church,  the  Greek  Eastern 
Church,  and  the  Missions,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  attached  rather  to  the  Latin  than  to  the  Eastern 
Churches.  But,  at  the  bottom,  these  different  parts 
all  go  to  form  the  one  Catholic  Church,  having  the 
same  faith,  the  same  sacraments  and  the  same  su- 
preme pastor,  the  Pope. 

The  great  division  of  the  Church  into  Latin  or 
Western  and  Greek  or  Eastern,  has  existed  ever 
since  the  beginning  of  Christianity.  Several  histori- 
ans pretend  that  the  reason  for  such  division  was  the 
extraordinary  prolongation  of  the  life  of  St.  John, 
the  well-beloved  disciple  of  Jesus,  who  governed  the 
Eastern  Churches  until  the  year  102.  St.  John  be- 
queathed to  his  subjects  different  customs  and  rites 
from  those  observed  in  Rome,  but  maintained  unity 
of  faith  and  the  primacy  and  supreme  authority  of 
the  Pope,  sole  successor  to  St.  Peter.  Thus  it  hap- 
pened that  the  first  general  councils  though  held  in 
the  East  at  Ephesus,  Nicea  and  so  forth,  were  com- 
posed of  both  Latin  bishops  and  Eastern  bishops, 
presided  over  by  a  representative  of  the  Roman  Pon- 
tiff. 

The  Greek  Church,  before  her  deplorable  schism 
in  1504,  was  very  brilliant.  Her  patriarchs  were 
known  and  honored  throughout  the  Catholic  world. 
They  were  Epiphanius,  Athanasius,  Chrysostom, 
Basil,  and  so  forth — fathers  and  doctors  of  the 
Church,  whose  works  are  ever  a  treasury  of  inesti- 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

mable  value  to  us  all.  Since  the  separation  first  at- 
tempted by  Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  consummated  by  one  of  his  successors,  Michael 
Cserularius,  the  splendid  Greek  Church,  now  for  the 
most  part  heretic  and  schismatic,  though  calling  her- 
self Orthodox,  has  lost  her  freedom  and  energy.  She 
is  dominated  by  temporal  powers.  And  while  Rome 
has  produced,  in  every  century,  a  brilliant  band  of 
saints,  pontiffs,  doctors,  founders  of  religious  orders, 
and  missionaries  exciting  admiration  throughout  the 
world,  the  Eastern  Church  has  been  content  to  live 
on,  rich  but  enslaved,  lacking  the  breath  of  life  to 
arouse  men  capable  of  drawing  new  peoples  to  the 
Faith  of  Jesus  Christ.  And  if  the  development  of 
the  Greek  Orthodox  religion  has  been  relatively  con- 
siderable in  Russia,  we  may  find  the  reason  in  that 
it  followed  the  growth  of  the  Empire  itself.  The 
religion  of  the  conquerors  imposed  itself  upon  the 
vanquished  nations,  even  if  need  were,  by  armed 
force. 

The  Greeks,  who  have  remained  united  to  Rome, 
and  Catholics  belonging  to  other  Eastern  Uniat 
Churches:  Copts,  Melchite-Greeks,  Syrians,  Maron- 
ites,  Chaldeans,  Armenians  and  so  forth — are  only 
a  shadow  of  what  they  used  to  be.  They  form  alto- 
gether a  group  of  only  6,423,678  persons.  Moreover, 
they  are  oppressed  by  the  Turks.  Yet  they  have 
the  great  merit  of  having  remained  faithful  for 
centuries,  in  spite  of  every  obstacle,  to  their  faith 
as  to  their  nationality,  thus  giving  to  the  world  an 
admirable  example  of  perseverance  in  the  midst  of 

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trials.  Rome  is  very  anxious  that  they  should  pre- 
serve their  particular  rites  and  customs,  first  in  order 
not  to  scare  away  from  conversion  those  among  them 
who  are  still  separated  and  schismatic,  and  secondly 
to  safeguard  those  priceless  documents  of  Christian 
antiquity,  manifest  proofs  of  the  immutability  of  our 
Catholic  faith. 

Among  their  customs  that  which  causes  most  sur- 
prise and  sometimes  troubles  the  occidental  mind 
is  the  marriage  of  their  priests.  As  regards  this  mat- 
ter, it  is  well  to  correct  a  very  current  mistake.  It 
is  often  said  that  Rome  allows  priests  of  the  Eastern 
Churches  to  marry.  This  is  quite  untrue.  No  Greek 
Uniat  priest,  or  priest  belonging  to  an  oriental 
Catholic  Church,  has  ever  married  after  becoming 
a  priest.  The  Church  admits  to  priesthood  men  who 
are  already  married,  which  is  quite  different.  If 
their  wives  die  later,  the  priests  cannot  marry  again, 
and  if  they  themselves  die  first,  their  wives  cannot 
remarry  and  are  received  into  women's  convents, 
without,  however,  being  forced  to  take  the  veil.  The 
ecclesiastical  discipline  concerning  the  marriage  of 
priests  has  never  altered,  and  the  celebrated  Dr.  D61- 
linger,  instigator  of  the  Schism  of  Old  Catholics,  but 
an  historian  of  incontestable  value,  affirmed  this  to 
a  fallen  French  priest  seeking  to  justify  his  fault. 
In  a  letter  quoted  in  a  recently  published  book,  "A 
Married  Priest  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  by  M. 
Herdin,  Dollinger  authoritatively  affirms  that  at 
no  period  in  history  do  we  find  the  marriage  of 
priests  tolerated  or  practiced  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

Among  the  Apostles,  the  Gospel  mentions  only  St. 
Peter  as  having  been  married.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  Our  Saviour  miraculously  healed  his 
mother-in-law  ( St.  Mark  1 :30-31 ) .  According  to 
some  authors,  St.  Petronilla  was  the  daughter  of  St. 
Peter;  her  chapel,  founded  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment, may  be  seen  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  at  the 
Vatican. 

The  statistics  of  the  faithful  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  world  is  very  comforting.  According  to  the 
most  likely  estimates,  there  are  on  the  whole  earth  one 
billion  and  a  half  of  inhabitants,  divided  up,  among  the 
various  religions,  as  follows: 

494,250,000  Christians,  of  whom  240,000,000  are 
Catholics;  150,000,000  Protestants  of  all  denomina- 
tions; 100,000,000  Orthodox  Greeks. 

Other  religions:  10,000,000  Jews;  200,000,000  Ma- 
homedans;  200,000,000  Buddhists;  220,000,000  Hin- 
doos; 340,000,000  Disciples  of  Confucius;  24,900,000 
Schintoists;  157,000,000  Fetich  adorers. 

The  remaining  human  beings  cannot  be  accurately 
classed,  at  any  rate  from  the  religious  point  of  view. 
We  see,  therefore,  that  the  Catholics  form  the  most 
important  portion  of  the  religious  denominations. 
The  number  of  their  priests  is  estimated  at  about 
400,000. 

The  Catholic  Church  is  constantly  progressing. 
The  missions  and  other  countries  of  the  Latin  Rite 
recruit  each  year  an  average  of  900,000  faithful  and 
2,000  priests,  and  build  1,800  churches  or  chapels. 
Two  new  dioceses  are  created,  on  an  average,  each 
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year.  It  must  be  noted  that  under  the  rule  of  Leo 
XIII  and  of  Pius  X  that  average  has  been  greatly 
exceeded.  Leo  XIII  during  his  lengthy  Pontificate 
created  218  dioceses  or  vicariates  and  prefectures 
apostolic,  an  unheard-of  thing  in  history.  His  Holi- 
ness Pius  X  in  six  years'  reign  has  already  created 
seven  archbishoprics,  fifteen  bishoprics  and  two  prela- 
tures  nullius,  twelve  vicariates  apostolic  and  prefec- 
tures apostolic,  in  all  fifty. 

At  no  period  has  the  Church  been  more  flourishing 
and  vigorous  than  now;  she  need  not,  therefore,  quail 
before  the  predictions  launched  forth  by  her  adver- 
saries announcing  her  approaching  end.  That  they 
are,  unfortunately,  capable  of  doing  harm  in  too  many 
parts  of  the  Christian  world,  does  not  give  them  the 
right  to  shout  out,  "Victory!"  They  lose  sight  of, 
or  pretend  to  ignore,  the  entire  extent  of  the  Catholic 
world,  an  organization  which  spreads  over  the  whole 
globe  and  has  nothing  to  fear  from  their  opposition, 
which  is  in  most  cases  mere  bravado.  The  Church 
has  often  been  compared  to  a  majestic  vessel  bearing 
the  salvation  of  the  world  within  it.  The  Pope  is 
at  the  helm;  following  his  orders,  the  bishops  pass 
on  instructions  to  the  priests  who  man  the  ship,  as- 
sisted by  a  number  of  passengers — the  faithful.  In 
spite  of  contrary  winds  and  raging  waves  this  splen- 
did vessel  moves  fearlessly  toward  her  eternal  des- 
tiny, whereas  around  her  vainly  struggle  and  vanish 
in  the  deep,  those  imprudent  beings  who  refuse  to 
embark  on  her  and  those  who  seek  to  arrest  her  course. 
A  picture,  dating  from  the  sixteenth  century  and  at- 

104 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

tributed  to  the  J/esuits,  reproduces  this  striking  alle- 
gory with  consummate  art. 

The  Catholic  missions  constitute,  in  themselves,  an 
important  part  of  the  Church ;  they  contain  222  vicari- 
ates  or  prefectures  apostolic.  They  are  the  vast  field 
in  which  are  sown  and  cultivated  the  promising  har- 
vests of  the  future.  As  a  consequence,  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Propaganda  in  Rome,  which  gov- 
erns them,  is  one  of  the  most  important  institutions 
there,  and  its  cardinal  prefect  is  possessed  of  most 
extensive  powers. 

The  missionaries  of  the  first  centuries  were  volun- 
teers, generally  priests  and  bishops,  who  offered 
themselves  to  the  first  Roman  Pontiffs  and  were  sent 
by  them  into  countries  which  were  still  heathen,  to 
convert  the  natives  and  organize  new  ramifications 
of  the  Church  in  distant  lands.  Such  was  the  origin 
of  most  of  the  dioceses  in  France  and  elsewhere  in 
Europe  where  these  first  Apostles  are  honored  as 
saints  and  often  as  martyrs.  But  as  time  went  on, 
Rome,  to  ensure  the  regular  recruiting  of  mission- 
aries and  to  give  greater  continuity  and  stability  to 
her  first  foundations,  was  brought  to  entrust  the  mis- 
sions to  religious  orders  and  to  permanent  congre- 
gations, such  as  the  Paris  Society  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions. As  early  as  the  seventeenth  century  the 
missions  in  China  and  Japan  were  organized  and 
evangelized  by  Jesuits  and  Dominicans.  The  Jes- 
uits were  even  famous  in  the  Celestial  Empire  for 
their  creation  of  the  observatory  at  Peking  and  for 
their  other  scientific  works. 

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Today,  the  religious  orders,  the  Benedictines, 
Augustinians,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Jesuits,  et 
cetera,  assisted  by  numerous  new  orders  and  congre- 
gations, are  conducting  most  successful  missions  in 
the  five  parts  of  the  world.  The  societies  most  widely 
engaged  in  foreign  missions  are:  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  (Lazarists), 
the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  the  Society  of 
Mary,  the  Oratorians  and  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  the  Redemptorists,  the  Paulists,  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and  the 
Priests  of  the  Foreign  Missions. 

The  Salesians  of  Don  Bosco,  so  recently  founded, 
have  already  flourishing  missions  in  many  countries 
of  the  world  where  they  are  doing  wonderful  work. 
Their  first  mission  in  the  United  States  was  opened 
in  San  Francisco  in  1898  and  since  then  they  have 
opened  two  more  in  that  city,  one  at  Oakland,  and 
two  in  New  York. 

The  Marist  Fathers,  the  Society  of  Mary,  were 
definitely  organized  by  the  Holy  See  in  1836  as  mis- 
sionaries for  Oceanica,  but  since  then  their  field  of 
labor  has  come  to  include  parts  of  France,  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  the  United  States  and  New  Zealand,  as 
well.  In  the  United  States  they  have  two  training 
houses  at  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  six  col- 
leges in  Louisiana,  Utah  and  Maine,  eighteen  parishes 
in  various  states  and  missions  in  West  Virginia  and 
Idaho. 

The  priests  of  the  African  Mission  of  Lyons,  es- 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

tablished  by  Monsignor  Marion  of  Brevillac  in  1856, 
are  scattered  throughout  Africa,  as  also  the  White 
Fathers,  or  Missionaries  of  Our  Lady  of  Africa,  at 
Algiers,  founded  by  Cardinal  Lavigerie  about  the 
year  1872. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  also  work  with 
marvelous  success  on  the  vast  Black  Continent,  in 
the  French  colonies  and  at  Madagascar.  In  Senegal 
one  of  them,  Monsignor  Berthat,  vicar  apostolic,  was 
a  veteran  of  the  mission,  where  he  had  spent  thirty- 
five  years.  During  his  visit  to  Senegal,  M.  Andre 
Lebon,  then  Minister  of  Colonies  in  France,  paid  a 
generous  tribute  to  the  works  and  devotion  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  one  of  whom,  Father 
Lemoine,  at  the  beginning  of  1900,  celebrated  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  arrival  in  Senegal.  He 
never  returned  to  France  and,  like  a  modern  Gregory, 
having  found  at  Joal  an  entirely  heathen  town,  he 
had  the  consolation  of  rendering  it  entirely  Christian. 

In  the  French  Congo,  the  vicar  apostolic  is  Mon- 
signor Audouard,  who  lives  at  Brazzaville.  This 
vicariate  includes  six  mission-centers,  dotted  along  the 
Congo  and  Ubanggi  Rivers.  The  Vicariate  of  the 
Holy  Family  at  Ranzires  extends  along  the  Shari 
to  Lake  Tchad,  about  2,000  kilometers  inland. 
These  missions  are  served  by  two  little  steamboats, 
the  Diata-Diate  and  the  Leo  XIII,  which  have  also, 
especially  lately,  rendered  important  services  to  the 
French  authorities  and  to  the  various  expeditions 
sent  to  the  Tchad  district,  and  to  Bar  el  Ghazal.  The 
brave  vicar  apostolic  was  decorated  with  the  Legion 

107 


THE  VATICAN 

of  Honor  and  off ered  the  civic  crown.  The  reward 
was  well  deserved,  for  there  are  many  dangers  to  be 
faced  by  those  who  work  among  these  savages. 
Father  Severin  of  the  Banghi  Station  and  a  mission 
child  were  murdered  not  long  ago  by  the  Bodjos. 
The  body  of  the  latter  could  not  be  found,  having 
no  doubt  formed  part  of  the  horrible  banquets  in 
which  those  natives  delight. 

In  the  Upper-Ogowe  district,  at  Franceville,  the 
missionaries  are  very  practical.  Father  Bichat  has 
given  his  Christian  converts  regular  instruction  in  ag- 
riculture, which  has  resulted  in  the  development  of 
a  large  plantation  of  cocoa-trees.  In  the  same  mis- 
sion they  have  tamed  a  young  elephant  which  now 
does  the  work  of  twenty  men  in  transporting  wood 
and  other  goods.  The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are 
the  first  who  have  managed,  since  the  times  of  the 
Romans,  to  tame  an  African  elephant,  for  on  the 
East  Coast  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  who  had  sent 
for  a  herd  of  elephants,  three  of  which  were  already 
tamed,  failed  in  his  efforts  to  domesticate  them. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  Lazarists  were  employing  457 
priests  in  missions  at  the  very  time  when  one  of  the 
deputies  of  the  ministerial  majority  declared  in  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  they  had  nothing 
to  do  with  missions.  These  religious  orders  possess 
seven  large  missions  in  China*  and  Monsignor  Favier, 
the  illustrious  Bishop  of  Peking,  was  one  of  their  order, 
as  were  also  M.  Hue  Gabet  and  the  erudite  Armand 
David. 

M.  de  Lapparent,  the  well-known  French  savant, 

108 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

in  an  article  on  the  scientific  labors  of  M.  Armand 
David,  the  Lazarist  priest,  says : 

"M.  Blanchard  of  the  Institute  was  speaking  of  this  travel- 
er when  he  stated  before  the  whole  muster  of  the  Learned 
Societies  at  the  Sorbonne:  'Naturalists  have  greatly  ad- 
mired the  work  accomplished  in  the  Extreme  East  by  M. 
Armand  David,  and  have  felt  a  feeling  of  national  pride  at 
sight  of  the  immense  number  of  specimens  sent  by  the  brave 
missionary  to  our  museum.'  His  testimony  was  confirmed  in 
1876  by  that  of  the  naturalist  Hartland,  who  declared  that 
in  the  realm  of  botany,  zoology  and  geology  in  China,  M. 
David's  merit  was  beyond  all  comparison.  Nor  did  he  hesi- 
tate to  proclaim,  Protestant  and  Prussian  though  he  be,  that 
the  'missionaries  have  every  right  to  be  called  the  pioneers  of 
civilization.' ' 

And  again,  it  is  well  known-  that  Monsignor  Favier 
was  at  his  post  in  Peking,  encouraging  all  those 
around  him  in  August,  1900,  at  the  time  when  the 
French  contingent  of  the  expedition  delivered  him 
and  all  the  Christians  who  were  besieged  by  the 
Chinese  in  the  Petang  quarter  of  the  town.  Had 
their  deliverers  tarried,  they  must  all  have  perished. 
No  sooner,  however,  was  Monsignor  Favier  delivered 
than  he  wrote  to  Father  Fiat,  Superior  General  of 
the  Lazarists  and  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  in  the 
following  terms: 

PEKING,  August  16,  1900. 

"Yesterday,  the  troops  returned  to  Peking.  This  morning 
we  were  delivered  by  the  French.  During  the  siege  which  has 
lasted  two  months,  2,400  shells  and  bullets  fell  on  the  Pekang 
quarter ;  everything  is  much  damaged ;  the  Church  must  be 

109 


THE  VATICAN 

rebuilt;  mines  were  fired  killing  a  great  number  of  our  peo- 
ple; others  have  perished  from  hunger  and  bullets.  We  had 
only  two  days  more  to  live,  cutting  down  rations  to  two 
ounces  per  person!  We  have  eaten  every  animal,  all  the 
leaves  off  the  trees,  roots,  etc. ;  more  than  120  children 
are  dead  and  51  perished  in  an  explosion ;  we  have  400 
graves  in  the  garden!  However,  our  3,000  Christian  men 
and  women  are  safe.  Not  one  Sister  died  in  the  mission." 

On  January  21,  1901,  Count  de  Mun  paid  a  high 
compliment  to  the  valiant  Bishop,  stating  in  the 
tribune  of  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies : 

"When  the  great  tragedy  of  Peking  was  ended,  when  the 
curtain  fell  over  all  that  ghastly  story,  a  figure  stood  forth, 
that  of  a  man  in  perfect  union  with  the  French  minister, 
joining  him  in  peril  and  in  struggle,  as  he  had  joined  him  the 
day  before  in  negotiations  and  in  peace ;  it  is  the  figure  of 
Monsignor  Favier.  None  here,  none  indeed  beyond  these 
walls,  can  have  forgotten  that  great  day  of  August  16,  a 
year  ago,  when  responding  to  the  sight  of  the  tricolor  flag 
flying  on  the  summit  of  the  cathedral  and  to  the  notes  of 
*Pere  Bugeaud'  sounded  by  the  Christians'  bugles,  the  blue- 
coated  soldiers  burst  suddenly  into  shouts.  It  was  the  Ma- 
rine Infantry  led  by  Major  Darty.  And  the  Bishop,  re- 
lating the  events  of  that  day,  closes  his  tale  with  the  words : 
'We  embraced  one  another,  tears  streaming  down  our  cheeks ; 
we  were  saved,  and  saved  by  French  soldiers.'  In  those 
words  he  expressed  not  only  the  joy  of  unexpected  salvation, 
but  the  joy  of  satisfied  patriotism." 

The  Lazarists  are  not  alone  in  their  devotion  to 
Christ's  cause  out  in  China.  The  priests  of  the  Paris 
Society  of  Foreign  Missions  have  been  at  work  there 

110 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

in  the  most  dangerous  posts,  and  have  given  numer- 
ous martyrs  to  the  Church.  This  famous  Society, 
whose  headquarters  are  in  Paris,  was  founded  be- 
tween 1658  and  1663  with  the  approval  of  Pope 
Alexander  VII  and  legally  recognized  by  the  French 
Government.  The  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions 
had  for  its  special  object  the  conversion  of  the  heathen, 
not  alone  by  preaching  the  Gospel,  but  by  the  forma- 
tion of  native  clergy.  This  object  has  not  been  modi- 
fled  during  the  two  centuries  which  have  now  passed 
and  today,  as  in  the  first  days  of  the  Society's  ex- 
istence, all  young  men  received  at  the  Seminary  of 
Foreign  Missions  are  sent,  without  exception,  to 
work  among  heathen  nations. 

From  its  foundation  until  1899,  the  Seminary  of 
Foreign  Missions  has  sent  to  the  countries  in  the 
Far  East  2,320  missionaries,  of  whom  1,925  set  out 
between  1840  and  the  present  day.  Among  them, 
seventeen  were  condemned  to  death  by  heathen  tri- 
bunals and  shed  their  blood  for  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  Eight  among  them  were  declared  Venerable 
and  nine  Blessed,  together  with  forty  priests  or  lay- 
men of  the  Cochin-China,  Tong-king  and  Chinese  mis- 
sions. The  ceremonies  of  their  beatification  were 
celebrated  in  1900,  during  the  month  of  May  in  Rome, 
and  during  June,  in  Paris.  Moreover,  sixty  mis- 
sionaries of  the  society  were  murdered  without  pre- 
vious condemnation,  by  the  heathen  in  various  places 
and  in  different  manners. 

The  Society  of  Foreign  Missions,  in  its  annual  re- 
port for  1908,  gives  the  following  statistics :  The  So- 

111 


THE  VATICAN 

ciety  at  present  numbers  in  its  32  missions  of  India, 
Indo-China,  China  and  Japan  37  bishops  and  1,371 
missionaries,  305  lay  brothers  and  4,075  nuns.  We 
should  note  that  these  missionaries,  brothers  and 
nuns,  are  all  French  with  the  exception,  of.  course, 
of  native  catechisers  and  nuns.  It  is  well  known, 
moreover,  with  what  affection  those  apostles  who 
spend  their  lives  and  energies  abroad  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel,  remember  their  earthly  home 
and  teach  the  inhabitants  of  the  Far  East  to  love  that 
land  also. 

But  to  really  understand  how  far  below  the  demand 
those  figures  are,  it  suffices  to  remember  that,  tak- 
ing only  the  missions  entrusted  to  the  Society  of 
Foreign  Missions,  the  heathen  population  amounts 
to  approximately  two  hundred  and  fifty  million  souls ; 
thus  we  see  that  there  are  barely  seven  priests  for  one 
million  of  infidels.  In  spite  of  this  dearth  of  apos- 
tolic laborers,  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  is  able 
each  year  to  register  on  an  average  40,000  to  50,000 
baptisms  of  adult  heathens  (in  1898  the  figure 
reached  72,700)  and  from  160,000  to  200,000  bap- 
tisms of  pagan  children  in  peril  of  death;  while 
religious  assistance  is  given  to  1,200,000  native 
Christians  spread  here  and  there  in  the  midst  of  idola- 
ters. 

The  Jesuit  Fathers  have  a  still  greater  number 
of  missionaries  in  their  numerous  missions;  they 
amount  to  more  than  3,000.  Their  vast  colleges  in 
India  contain  a  great  corps  of  religious. 

The  Capuchins  number  eight  hundred  religious,  of 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

whom  628  are  priests  distributed  in  the  various  mis- 
sions established  all  over  the  world. 

Having  presented  the  evangelical  laborers,  it  will, 
perhaps,  be  interesting  to  consider  the  countries  where 
they  expend  their  zealous  efforts,  and  the  difficulties 
and  victories  which  they  have  met  there.  But  a  study 
of  each  of  the  Catholic  missions  would  require  not  one, 
but  many  volumes.  We  must,  therefore,  be  content 
to  study  only  the  chief  missions,  that  is  to  say,  those 
of  Australia,  India,  Indo-China,  China  and  Japan. 

AUSTRALIA 

The  mission  which  developed  most  rapidly,  so  rap- 
idly indeed  as  to  become  part  of  the  regular  hierarchy 
of  the  Church  within  the  space  of  a  few  years,  is  that 
in  Australia.  There  are  at  present  on  that  continent 
one  million  Catholics,  four  archbishops,  nineteen 
bishops,  twelve  hundred  priests,  over  thirteen  hundred 
churches,  six  hundred  teaching  brethren  and  six 
thousand,  five  hundred  nuns  teaching  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  children.  Associated  with 
them  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  in  August,  1911, 
was  Cardinal  Moran,  Archbishop  of  Sydney.  Deal- 
ings between  religious  and  civil  powers  here  are  cour- 
teous and  friendly.  Thus,  in  August,  1909,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  visit  to  Sydney  of  sixteen  American 
vessels,  Cardinal  Moran,  accompanied  by  bishops  and 
priests,  went  to  the  town  hall  and  welcomed  the 
American  sailors  in  a  speech  which  was  received  with 
great  enthusiasm.  On  Sunday  one  thousand  offi- 
cers, one  thousand,  five  hundred  non-commissioned 

113 


THE  VATICAN 

officers  and  sailors  were  present  at  Mass  celebrated 
in  Sydney  Cathedral  by  one  of  the  chaplains  of  the 
American  fleet.  These  marvelous  results  have  been 
obtained  in  less  than  a  century. 

The  first  awakenings  of  Catholicism  in  Australia 
were  more  than  modest.  It  is  well  known  that  this 
colony,  which  has  now  become  practically  self-govern- 
ing under  the  sovereignty  of  England,  was  at  first  a 
penal  colony.  When  seven  hundred  and  fifty  convicts 
landed  at  Port  Jackson  in  1788,  an  Irish  priest  of- 
fered to  accompany  them,  but  he  was  refused.  Dur- 
ing the  next  eleven  years  other  consignments  of 
convicts  were  deported,  but  never  a  Catholic  priest 
among  them  to  help  them  with  the  comforts  of  re- 
ligion. In  1799  numerous  political  prisoners  were 
sent  to  Australia;  these  were  the  men  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  Irish  insurrection  of  1798.  A  few  priests 
were  among  the  number,  but  they  soon  disappeared, 
either  through  death  or  because  they  were  taken  back 
to  their  own  land;  so  that  from  1810  to  1820  the 
Australian  continent  did  not  contain  a  single  Catholic 
priest.  All  who  asked  to  be  allowed  to  go  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  unfortunate  convicts  were  pitilessly 
repulsed  by  the  British  government. 

It  was  only  in  1820,  when  tolerance  began  to  pre- 
vail in  the  United  Kingdom,  that  the  Colonial  Office 
determined  to  send  two  priests  to  Sydney,  with  full 
authorization  to  exercise  the  duties  of  their  religion. 
Father  Therry  and  Father  Connolly  were  appointed. 
In  Sydney  as  in  London,  the  Anglican  Church  alone 
was  officially  recognized;  Catholicism  was  tolerated, 

114 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

but  within  the  strictest  limits  possible.  It  was  in  the 
eyes  of  the  government  an  evil  to  be  eradicated,  if 
possible,  but  in  any  case  to  be  cautiously  circum- 
scribed. The  obstacles  to  be  fought  against  would 
have  worn  out  the  courage  of  less  zealous  men,  but 
Fathers  Therry  and  Connolly  were  not  to  be  driven 
back  by  difficulties.  They  divided  the  vast  field  which 
they  were  allowed  to  cultivate ;  Father  Connolly  went 
to  Hobart  in  Tasmania  and  Father  Therry  remained 
at  Sydney. 

Father  Therry's  labors,  in  the  very  center  of  the 
colony,  surrounded  by  a  population  of  ten  thousand 
Catholics,  proved  particularly  beneficial.  His  first 
care  was  to  build  a  church.  The  very  year  after  his 
arrival,  1821,  he  laid  the  first  stone  of  a  humble  sanc- 
tuary dedicated  to  the  Holy  Virgin,  which  has  since 
been  replaced  by  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Mary  at 
Sydney,  the  metropolitan  church  of  Australia.  But 
it  was  only  fifteen  years  later  that  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Australia  began  seriously  to  develop. 

The  Church  Act  of  July  29,  1836,  marks  a  never- 
to-be-forgotten  date  in  the  history  of  Australian 
Catholicism.  By  that  law  the  Anglican  Church 
ceased  to  be  the  official  religion  of  the  land ;  the  vari- 
ous denominations  were  all  placed  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing and  the  annual  grant,  which  had  hitherto  been 
given  only  to  the  Anglican  Church,  was  divided  up 
between  all  religious  bodies  in  Australia,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  their  adherents  and  to  the  ex- 
tent of  their  needs.  At  the  very  moment  when  liberty 
of  religion  was  thus  proclaimed  to  be  a  fundamental 

115 


THE  VATICAN 

law  in  Australia,  an  episcopal  see  was  established 
at  Sydney;  its  first  titulary  was  an  English  Bene- 
dictine, the  Right  Reverend  John  Bede  Folding. 

Fifty  years  later,  so  great  was  the  progress  ac- 
complished that  the  Holy  See  was  forced  to  consider 
the  advisability  of  endowing  the  Australian  Churches 
with  a  uniform  system  of  legislation.  Two  Synods 
were  held,  one  at  Sydney  in  1844,  the  other  at  Mel- 
bourne in  1869,  where  the  question  had  already  been 
mooted.  These  first  efforts  had  remained  ineffectual 
and  Pope  Leo  XIII  considered,  in  1885,  that  the 
propitious  moment  had  arrived  for  a  solemn  ratifi- 
cation of  all  that  had  been  accomplished  hitherto. 
He  therefore  raised  the  Archbishop  of  Sydney,  Mon- 
signor  Moran,  to  the  rank  of  cardinal,  and  charged 
him  with  the  task  of  summoning  to  the  metropolitan 
city  all  the  bishops  of  Australia,  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  a  council  over  which  Monsignor  Moran  him- 
self was  to  preside. 

The  Council  of  Sydney  fixed  the  boundaries  of  the 
various  dioceses,  decided  on  the  mode  of  election  of 
the  bishops,  and  the  erection  of  parishes,  introduced 
uniform  celebration  of  the  Divine  Office,  determined 
which  should  be  the  feasts  of  obligation,  drafted  the 
law  concerning  fasting  and  exceptional  cases  of  ex- 
emption, the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  the 
administration  of  ecclesiastical  property,  the  founda- 
tion of  seminaries,  and  so  forth.  The  decisions  of 
this  council  form  a  veritable  charter  of  the  Australian 
Church. 

Australian  Catholics  have  justly  given  great  care 

116  * 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

to  the  matter  of  primary  education,  which  bears  so 
intimate  a  relation  to  the  life  of  the  Church.  In 
1899,  Dr.  Carr,  Archbishop  of  Melbourne,  described, 
in  a  magnificent  speech  delivered  at  Maynooth  Col- 
lege, Ireland,  what  sacrifices  the  Australians  had 
generously  accepted  in  behalf  of  their  schools  and 
what  fine  results  had  been  obtained. 

"Up  till  twenty-five  years  ago,"  said  he,  "the  schools  in 
Australia  were,  practically  speaking,  denominational.  A 
grant  was  made  by  the  government  of  each  colony  to  the 
schools  of  all  denominations  without  distinction. 

"Then  a  great  change  took  place.  Government  grants 
were  withdrawn  from  denominational  schools  and  the  various 
religious  bodies  had  either  to  submit  to  the  state  system  or 
to  build  and  maintain  schools  at  their  own  expense.  The 
Catholic  clergy  were  alone  in  Australia  to  resolve  on  build- 
ing and  maintaining  private  schools  rather  than  to  allow 
Catholic  children  to  frequent  schools  where  entirely  secular 
instruction  was  given.  ...  I  need  not  tell  you  that  such 
a  decision  was  instinctively  taken — by  an  instinct  of  faith — 
and  it  was  decided  to  erect  schools  and  to  maintain  them  at 
any  cost,  without  shrinking  from  the  sacrifices  which  such 
a  course  would  entail.  .  .  .  During  the  past  twenty-five 
years  no  less  than  half  a  million  sterling  has  been  spent 
in  buildings  by  Victoria  alone,  which  is  certainly  by  far  the 
smallest  of  the  Australian  colonies,  and  a  similar  sum  has 
been  necessary  for  the  teaching  staff,  so  that  the  Catholics 
of  Victoria  have  spent  on  their  schools  more  than  one  million 
pounds  sterling. 

"And  besides  maintaining  their  own  schools  they  are 
obliged  to  contribute  towards  the  maintenance  of  official  lay 
schools.  They  have  protested  and  still  continue  to  protest 

117 


THE  VATICAN 

against  this  injustice,  and  I  am  happy  to  say  that  their 
remonstrances  have  not  been  without  effect. 

"But  if  this  measure  has  been  unjust  and  often  prejudicial 
towards  Catholics,  I  do  not  think  that  any  greater  blessing 
could  have  fallen  on  the  Catholic  people  of  Australia  than 
the  necessity  of  building  and  keeping  their  own  schools  at 
their  own  expense.  It  has  drawn  Catholics  in  closer  union; 
it  has  strengthened  the  Catholic  interests  in  the  country  and 
has  drawn  upon  us  divine  graces  in  proportion  to  the  sacri- 
fices which  have  been  necessary.  .  .  ." 

INDIA 

The  missions  of  India  are  also  full  of  promise  for 
the  Church.  India,  properly  so-called,  is  under  the 
dominion  of  England.  That  old  cradle  of  civiliza- 
tion, more  ancient  perhaps  than  the  sanctuaries  of 
ancient  Egypt  is  now  the  scene  of  a  tremendous  social 
evolution.  The  Brahman  has  come  forth  from  his 
legendary  contemplation  of  the  ethereal  spheres;  he 
now  mixes  with  the  rest  of  the  world;  he  is  fast  be- 
coming judge,  doctor,  lawyer,  and  embracing  all  the 
liberal  professions  which  lead  to  honors  and  fortune. 
Following  him  the  upper  castes  have  taken  the  same 
trend;  administrative  offices,  warehouses,  railway 
stations  are  filled  with  Indian  employes  who  can  both 
speak  and  write  in  English.  But  the  Indian  soul  has 
not  been  truly  affected;  caste  divisions  and  prejudices 
are  still  very  lively,  old  superstitions  are  still  practiced 
in  every  form,  and  ancient  customs,  though  constantly 
fought  against,  are  very  far  from  dead.  The  great 
mass  of  the  people,  poor  and  ignorant,  have  remained 
riveted  to  their  labor,  their  fields,  and  their  customs, 

118 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

feeding  on  a  few  grains  of  rice,  covered  with  rags, 
cringing  before  the  conqueror  whom  they  do  not  love, 
and  who  lays  heavy  taxes  on  them  in  spite  of  their 
poverty. 

And  what  of  Catholicism  in  the  midst  of  this  motley 
population  of  250,000,000  souls  ?  It  makes  but  slow 
progress  if  we  consider  the  enormous  and  compact 
mass  of  humanity  which  it  must  convert ;  but  it  moves 
rapidly,  on  the  contrary,  if  we  cast  our  eyes  back 
over  a  period  of  one  hundred  years  and  realize  the 
meagerness  of  the  resources  at  the  disposal  of  the 
missionaries  and  the  obstacles  against  which  they 
must  fight. 

A  century  ago,  all  India  had  only  seven  bishops, 
two  of  whom  dwelt  in  Portugal,  twenty-two  Eu- 
ropean missionaries,  most  of  them  old  and  infirm,  to 
whom  must  be  added  three  or  four  hundred  Genoese 
priests,  very  ignorant  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and 
more  zealous  in  the  cause  of  rest  than  in  that  of  labor. 
There  were  hardly  500,000  Catholics  in  the  land,  the 
greater  number  of  whom  were  without  instruction  and 
inclined  to  be  superstitious.  There  was  not  a  college, 
only  a  very  few  elementary  schools,  and  no  hospitals, 
no  dispensaries,  no  orphanages  which  might  com- 
fort the  body  as  well  as  the  soul,  and  shed  over 
Catholicism  the  consoling  rays  of  charity. 

All  this  has  wonderfully  changed  within  the  past 
hundred  years.  Today  there  are  in  India :  one  apos- 
tolic delegate,  8  archbishops,  20  bishops,  4  prefects 
apostolic  and  three  vicars  apostolic  for  the  Syriac 
Christians.  The  staff  of  workers,  manifestly  insuffi- 
9  119 


THE  VATICAN 

cient  to  cope  with  the  needs  and  aspirations  of  the 
people,  is  composed  of  800  priests  in  the  Portuguese 
dioceses,  760  missionaries  belonging  to  10  European 
congregations  and  having  as  auxiliaries  more  than 
700  Indian  priests.  To  these  figures  we  may  add 
more  than  3,500  monks  and  nuns  of  all  orders  and 
all  nationalities.  The  efforts  of  this  well-organized 
army  of  missionaries  have  been  crowned  with  success. 
The  number  of  Catholics  in  India  has  increased  by 
more  than  one  million  in  a  century.  In  1800  they 
numbered  475,000;  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  they  have  grown  to  nearly  two  millions. 

The  Catholics  of  India  belong  for  the  most  part  to 
the  poorer  classes.  The  preaching  of  the  Gospel  at 
the  beginning  converted  mostly  those  whom  the  world 
despised.  The  imprint  which  was  then  given  to  the 
Catholic  teaching  has  never  been  effaced.  But, 
nevertheless,  there  are  among  the  faithful  a  certain 
number  of  rich  families,  well-to-do  doctors,  engineers, 
lawyers  and  high  officials.  Even  in  the  pagan  courts 
are  royal  councilors  who,  by  their  high  position,  their 
good  services  and  their  intelligence,  bring  the  Catho- 
lic religion  into  good  repute  in  the  eyes  of  Hindoos 
and  Mussulmans. 

Catholics  are  more  numerous  in  the  southern  part 
of  India  than  in  the  northern.  Thus,  except  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Calcutta  where  there  are  86,000 
Catholics,  the  dioceses  of  the  northern  regions  do  not 
contain  10,000  Catholics  each.  But  if  we  cast  our 
eye  over  the  statistics  of  the  southern  dioceses  we  find 
that  Pondicherry  contains  143,000  Catholics,  Madura 

120 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

200,000,  Colombo  205,000,  Quilon  116,000  and  so 
forth. 

There  are  several  reasons  to  account  for  this  dif- 
ference, the  chief  one  being  that  Mahomedanism  is 
much  more  widely  spread  in  the  countries  of  Agar, 
Lahore  and  the  neighboring  regions.  Now,  if  it  is 
an  exaggeration  to  say  that  grass  never  grows  on  the 
ground  which  has  been  trodden  by  a  Mussulman 
army,  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  followers  of  Ma- 
homet are  never  converted.  It  has  been  proved  over 
and  over  again.  Perhaps  the  reason  is  to  be  found 
in  the  easy  morality  of  the  Prophet;  but  we  do  not 
think  that  can  be  the  root  of  the  matter;  we  think  that 
the  true  reason  for  this  strange  and  enduring  obsti- 
nacy is  to  be  sought  in  the  love  which  the  Mussulmans 
have  for  their  doctrine  and  the  rare  and  partial  truths 
which  it  affords  them. 

Certain  circumstances  aided  the  apostolic  laborers 
in  the  southern  dioceses,  in  their  success  in  rapidly 
increasing  the  number  of  the  faithful.  One  of  the 
chief  of  these  circumstances  is  the  famine  which  for 
twenty-five  years  has  so  often  ravaged  India.  Dis- 
pensing, in  the  midst  of  the  distress,  their  own  private 
resources  as  well  as  the  resources  of  their  mis- 
sions, the  bishops  fed,  sheltered  and  saved  from 
death  thousands  and  thousands  of  starving  creatures. 
Brought  face  to  face  with  such  boundless  and  ever 
increasing  charity,  hearts  have  been  softened,  spirits 
have  been  enlightened  and  numerous  conversions  have 
rejoiced  and  enlarged  the  Church  of  God.  Hence 
it  is  that  in  the  Diocese  of  Pondicherry  more  than 

121 


THE  VATICAN 

cient  to  cope  with  the  needs  and  aspirations  of  the 
people,  is  composed  of  800  priests  in  the  Portuguese 
dioceses,  760  missionaries  belonging  to  10  European 
congregations  and  having  as  auxiliaries  more  than 
700  Indian  priests.  To  these  figures  we  may  add 
more  than  3,500  monks  and  nuns  of  all  orders  and 
all  nationalities.  The  efforts  of  this  well-organized 
army  of  missionaries  have  been  crowned  with  success. 
The  number  of  Catholics  in  India  has  increased  by 
more  than  one  million  in  a  century.  In  1800  they 
numbered  475,000;  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  they  have  grown  to  nearly  two  millions. 

The  Catholics  of  India  belong  for  the  most  part  to 
the  poorer  classes.  The  preaching  of  the  Gospel  at 
the  beginning  converted  mostly  those  whom  the  world 
despised.  The  imprint  which  was  then  given  to  the 
Catholic  teaching  has  never  been  effaced.  But, 
nevertheless,  there  are  among  the  faithful  a  certain 
number  of  rich  families,  well-to-do  doctors,  engineers, 
lawyers  and  high  officials.  Even  in  the  pagan  courts 
are  royal  councilors  who,  by  their  high  position,  their 
good  services  and  their  intelligence,  bring  the  Catho- 
lic religion  into  good  repute  in  the  eyes  of  Hindoos 
and  Mussulmans. 

Catholics  are  more  numerous  in  the  southern  part 
of  India  than  in  the  northern.  Thus,  except  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Calcutta  where  there  are  86,000 
Catholics,  the  dioceses  of  the  northern  regions  do  not 
contain  10,000  Catholics  each.  But  if  we  cast  our 
eye  over  the  statistics  of  the  southern  dioceses  we  find 
that  Pondicherry  contains  143,000  Catholics,  Madura 

120 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

200,000,  Colombo  205,000,  Quilon  116,000  and  so 
forth. 

There  are  several  reasons  to  account  for  this  dif- 
ference, the  chief  one  being  that  Mahomedanism  is 
much  more  widely  spread  in  the  countries  of  Agar, 
Lahore  and  the  neighboring  regions.  Now,  if  it  is 
an  exaggeration  to  say  that  grass  never  grows  on  the 
ground  which  has  been  trodden  by  a  Mussulman 
army,  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  followers  of  Ma- 
homet are  never  converted.  It  has  been  proved  over 
and  over  again.  Perhaps  the  reason  is  to  be  found 
in  the  easy  morality  of  the  Prophet;  but  we  do  not 
think  that  can  be  the  root  of  the  matter;  we  think  that 
the  true  reason  for  this  strange  and  enduring  obsti- 
nacy is  to  be  sought  in  the  love  which  the  Mussulmans 
have  for  their  doctrine  and  the  rare  and  partial  truths 
which  it  affords  them. 

Certain  circumstances  aided  the  apostolic  laborers 
in  the  southern  dioceses,  in  their  success  in  rapidly 
increasing  the  number  of  the  faithful.  One  of  the 
chief  of  these  circumstances  is  the  famine  which  for 
twenty-five  years  has  so  often  ravaged  India.  Dis- 
pensing, in  the  midst  of  the  distress,  their  own  private 
resources  as  well  as  the  resources  of  their  mis- 
sions, the  bishops  fed,  sheltered  and  saved  from 
death  thousands  and  thousands  of  starving  creatures. 
Brought  face  to  face  with  such  boundless  and  ever 
increasing  charity,  hearts  have  been  softened,  spirits 
have  been  enlightened  and  numerous  conversions  have 
rejoiced  and  enlarged  the  Church  of  God.  Hence 
it  is  that  in  the  Diocese  of  Pondicherr  more  than 


THE  VATICAN 

100,000  faithful  have  been  baptized  since  1880,  more 
than  50,000  in  Madras,  and  a  considerable  number  at 
Vizagapatam. 

Catholics,  we  admit,  are  not  alone  in  making  for- 
ward strides  in  India  during  the  past  century, 
or  rather  during  the  last  few  years.  Protestants  of 
all  denominations  have  also  made  rapid  progress. 
According  to  the  statistics  which  they  publish  from 
time  to  time,  their  numbers  now  exceed  1,000,000. 
But  their  strength  is  to  be  accounted  for  less  by  their 
numbers  than  by  their  educational  enterprises.  They 
have  more  than  50  large  colleges  where  about  60,000 
pupils  are  educated ;  professional,  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural schools,  and  hundreds  of  orphanages  and  hos- 
pitals. 

We  do  not  seek  to  deny  their  activity,  nor  the  zeal 
shown  by  many  of  their  number;  but  that  they  have 
been  able  to  accomplish  great  things  is  chiefly  owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  have  enormous  resources  to  back 
their  labors.  The  great  reproach  the  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries have  to  make  against  them  is  that  they  lead 
their  cultured  adherents  to  skepticism.  A  Protes- 
tant peasant  still  believes  in  something;  but  a  former 
pupil  of  one  of  the  Protestant  colleges  of  Bombay, 
Madras,  Calcutta  or  elsewhere,  no  longer  believes 
in  anything;  his  heart  is  dried  up,  his  soul  withered, 
his  intelligence  no  longer  sees  beyond  the  things  of 
this  world. 

Those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  things  of  India 
and  who  have  not  visited  the  country  cannot  have  any 
idea  of  the  importance  which  education  has  attained 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

there  during  the  last  fifty  years.  This  is  largely  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  university  degree  is  now  an  essential 
condition  for  any  youth  aspiring  to  public  employ- 
ment. Therefore  the  Indian  has  cast  himself,  head- 
foremost, we  might  almost  say,  into  the  schools,  not 
for  the  love  of  knowledge,  not  with  a  desire  for  in- 
tellectual and  moral  improvement,  but  merely  as  a 
means  to  obtain  remunerative  positions  and  honor. 
To  seek  to  hinder  this  fantastic  onward  movement 
would  be  to  oppose  the  most  lively  aspirations  of  the 
country  and  to  entirely  paralyze  the  missionaries  in 
their  efforts.  The  Church  of  India  would  sign  her 
death  warrant  if,  as  a  French  bishop  so  aptly  said, 
she  did  not  know  how  to  turn  to  good  account  for  the 
progress  of  her  labors,  the  ruling  events  of  each  cen- 
tury, the  changes  which  occur  in  the  nations  in  the 
midst  of  which  she  is  situated.  We  may  deeply  de- 
plore the  excesses  and  new  needs  which  are  thus 
aroused,  but  our  complaints  will  not  stop  their  onward 
course.  There  is  but  one  remedy:  to  go  forth  and 
meet  them  boldly. 

The  establishment  of  Catholic  schools  capable  of 
attracting  the  heathen  children  is  one  of  the  chief 
tasks  which  the  Church  in  India  must  undertake.  In 
that  resides  the  greater  part  of  her  future  success. 
If  she  cannot  offer  to  the  heathen  youth  the  means 
of  qualifying  for  public  offices,  she  must  submit  to  see 
them  drift  away  from  her  and  ask  the  Protestant 
denominations  for  that  teaching  which  she  is  power- 
less to  give. 

To  meet  these  needs,  the  missionaries  have  there- 

123 


THE  VATICAN 

fore  founded  large  and  numerous  colleges.  Thus 
the  Jesuits  have  a  college  at  Trichinopoli  where  they 
can  accommodate  1,800  pupils,  another  at  Bombay 
for  1,400  pupils;  the  Paris  Foreign  Missionary  So- 
ciety is  the  owner  of  Cuddalore  College  where  1,300 
boys  receive  education,  and  of  the  Bangalore  College 
which  accommodates  700  students ;  the  Oblates  of  Mary 
have  a  college  for  500  boys  at  Colombo.  These  figures 
are  significant.  The  eagerness  of  the  pupils  is  also 
astounding.  Not  alone  young  men,  but  married  men, 
fathers  of  families,  hasten  to  follow  the  curriculum  of 
English  universities.  Adjoining  the  colleges  stand 
flourishing  printing-houses  whence  come  the  clas- 
sical books,  philological,  devotional  and  controversial 
works,  which  are  bought  in  large  numbers  and  read 
with  eagerness. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  how  great  is  the  anxiety 
of  the  English  authorities  confronting  this  intel- 
lectual transformation  of  India,  accompanied  as  it  is 
by  constant  symptoms  of  rebellion  which  the  British 
Empire  is  too  often  called  upon  to  suppress.  What 
will  happen  when,  sooner  or  later,  the  Hindoos  like 
the  Japanese,  shall  be  acquainted  with  our  scientific 
discoveries,  possessed  of  our  culture,  our  modern  in- 
ventions, and  above  all,  when  they  come  to  forget  their 
personal  dissensions  and  join  forces?  Will  they 
prefer  to  remain  an  English  vice-royalty  or  to  become 
a  great  self-governing  nation  in  that  Eastern  land 
which  day  by  day  shakes  off  the  lethargy  of  centuries  ? 
God  alone  knows. 

Let  us  conclude  this  picture  of  the  state  of  the 

124. 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

Church  in  India  by  a  short  description  of  some  of 
the  charitable  institutions  there.  In  the  Archdiocese 
of  Agar,  there  are  sixteen  orphanages  accommodating 
1,300  children.  Allahabad  owns  six  orphanages  with 
595  children.  Bombay  has  an  Institute  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  and  a  leper  settlement.  The  Madras  dio- 
cese owns  four  hospitals,  while  those  of  Mysore  and 
Coimbatore  boast  of  four  hospitals  and  six  dis- 
pensaries where  more  than  200,000  patients  are 
treated  each  year.  To  sum  up,  there  are  102  orphan- 
ages with  6,150  children  and  a  hundred  hospitals,  ref- 
uges for  the  aged,  and  shelters. 

There  is  certainly  much  still  to  be  done  in  those 
missions,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  much  has  already 
been  accomplished  and  fine  results  obtained.  But  the 
Indian  soul,  as  we  have  already  stated,  is  not  yet 
reached  by  religion,  in  anything  like  a  correct  pro- 
portion to  the  efforts  which  are  being  made  to  win 
these  people  to  Christ.  One  proof  of  this  is  to  be 
found  in  the  superstitions  which  still  persist  in  every 
class  of  society.  Perhaps  the  strangest  of  these  su- 
perstitions, an  occasion  for  great  festivities  and  con- 
siderable traveling,  is  the  immersion  in  sacred  rivers, 
which  is  considered  absolutely  necessary  for  regenera- 
tion and  sanctification.  Regarding  sin  as  a  material 
stain,  the  Indians  look  upon  these  ablutions  as  a  most 
efficacious  means  of  washing  it  away.  Those  accom- 
plished in  certain  privileged  rivers,  such  as  the  Gan- 
ges, the  Indus,  the  Godavari,  the  Cauvery,  et  cetera, 
are  considered  to  purify  the  soul  and  body  from  all 
stain  and  all  sin.  When,  on  account  of  the  distance, 

125 


THE  VATICAN 

a  Hindoo  is  unable  to  go  to  those  rivers,  it  suffices 
to  journey  thither  in  imagination,  and  to  fancy  him- 
self bathing  in  the  sacred  waters.  The  effect  is  the 
same,  in  Hindoo  eyes. 

This  purifying  virtue  is  also  attributed  to  numerous 
springs  and  lakes  venerated  in  India,  which  possess 
these  qualities  only  at  certain  times  of  the  year.  The 
lake  in  the  vicinity  of  Kumbhakonam,  Tan j  ore,  is 
invested  with  this  property  but  once  a  year,  and  more 
especially  every  twelfth  year.  Nothing  is  stranger 
than  the  ceremonies  held  at  Kumbhakonam  on  that 
occasion.  The  town,  inhabited  by  Brahmans  and 
other  heathen  Hindoos,  is  full  of  multi-colored  pa- 
godas, lakes  and  baths  of  all  sorts.  The  pious-minded 
rush  there  each  year  from  all  parts  of  India  to  offer 
their  homage  to  the  gods  and  to  bathe  in  the  regener- 
ating waters  which  cleanse  them  not  only  from  sins 
which  they  have  committed,  but  also  those  which  they 
foresee  that  they  will  commit  in  future.  This  occurs 
in  March  when  the  constellation  of  Makha  rises  above 
the  horizon.  But  when  Jupiter,  revolving  round  the 
sun  happens  to  meet  the  moon,  the  great  feast  of 
Mabamakham  is  celebrated.  This  occurs  once  in 
every  twelve  years. 

A  popular  legend  relates  that  the  nine  divinities 
who  preside  over  the  nine  rivers  of  India  complained 
one  day  to  Kailasopathi,  master  of  Kailasa  or  Para- 
dise, that,  being  ever  occupied  in  washing  away  the 
sins  of  the  whole  human  race,  they  were  really  too 
weary  and  overworked.  They  therefore  begged  him 
to  find  some  easier  method  of  attaining  the  same  ob- 

126 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

ject.  Kailasopathi  then  pointed  out  Lake  Kumbha- 
konam  to  them,  saying  that  there  all  sins  might  be 
washed  away  en  masse;  and  he  promised  that  he  him- 
self, with  his  wife  and  children  would  go  to  the  lake 
every  twelve  years,  at  the  time  when  Jupiter  joining 
the  moon,  should  be  in  the  presence  of  the  Makha 
constellation. 

When  these  blessed  epochs  draw  near,  the  stations 
are  crowded  with  people,  wild  rushes  are  made  for 
the  trains,  and  even  the  freight  cars  are  filled  with 
a  countless  mass.  The  high  roads,  too,  are  crowded 
to  overflowing  with  an  inextricable  quantity  of  carts 
drawn  by  horses  and  oxen,  with  women  and  children 
seated  everywhere,  even  on  the  shafts,  while  the  men 
walk  by  the  side  of  the  vehicles  carrying  children  on 
their  backs  and  shoulders.  Other  carts  are  laden  with 
the  pans  in  which  the  traditional  rice  is  to  be  cooked. 
All  hasten  forward,  anxious,  eager,  breathless,  towards 
the  same  goal.  It  is  a  human  wave  which,  towards  the 
end  of  the  journey,  becomes  so  compact  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  lake  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
arrest  it.  On  reaching  the  banks  of  the  lake,  the  pil- 
grims wait  until  the  signal  is  given  by  the  master  of 
ceremonies  and  then  all  together,  men  and  women, 
plunge  into  the  water,  shouting  wildly  and  forming 
an  indescribable  mass  of  whirling,  twisting,  writhing 
human  beings.  It  is  rare  that  in  the  midst  of  such 
confusion,  some  persons  are  not  crushed  and  others 
more  or  less  wounded.  But  the  Hindoos  say  they  are 
fortunate  to  lose  their  lives  thus,  for  they  will  immedi- 
ately obtain  a  higher  place  in  the  land  of  felicity. 

1*7 


THE  VATICAN 

The  English  have  had  much  trouble  in  stamping 
out  other  superstitions  of  a  cruel  nature,  such  as  the 
voluntary  immolation  of  widows  on  the  funereal  pile 
of  their  husbands,  that  we  need  not  here  go  further 
into  this  curious  subject,  but  simply  point  out,  in 
closing,  that  the  contrast  is  striking  between  the  intel- 
lectual culture  which  the  Hindoos  seek  with  such 
eagerness  and  these  almost  savage  religious  prac- 
tices. 

INDO-CHINA 

To  the  south  and  west  of  the  great  Chinese  Empire 
which  alone  occupies  one-third  of  the  whole  expanse 
of  Asia  and  whose  doors,  both  political  and  commer- 
cial, are  being  too  slowly  opened  to  Western  civiliza- 
tion, to  the  east  of  India  which  British  cleverness 
has  subjected  to  its  laws,  stretches  a  vast  peninsula 
which  receiving  civilization,  institutions,  religion,  et 
cetera,  from  the  two  principal  countries  which  it 
touches,  has  also  taken  from  them  the  name  of  Indo- 
China. 

Politically  this  country  is  divided  between  France 
and  England.  The  latter  possesses,  or  rather  pro- 
tects, Burmah,  all  the  stretch  of  land  known  as  the 
Straits  Settlements  with  Singapore  as  capital,  and 
the  small  states  governed  by  rajahs  in  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula. The  French  possessions  comprise  the  an- 
cient Kingdom  of  Annam,  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Annam,  Tong-king  and  Cochin-China,  a  large  part 
of  the  Me-Kong  Valley  and  the  ancient  Kingdom  of 
Cambodia  which  appears  to  have  formerly  ruled  the 

128 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

whole  peninsula  and  which  in  the  days  of  its  splendor 
built  the  monuments  of  Angkor  Tom,  whose  extensive 
ruins  are,  to  the  astonished  traveler,  a  proof  of  van- 
ished civilization.  Between  the  French  and  English 
possessions  stretches  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,  coveted 
by  its  two  neighbors  with  whom  it  coquettes  alter- 
nately, hoping  by  this  wavering  policy  to  maintain  its 
independence. 

The  total  population  of  the  peninsula  amounts  to 
about  forty-five  millions.  It  is  composed  of  very 
different  elements  which  geographers  have  more  or 
less  arbitrarily  separated  into  four  groups:  1.  The 
Annamites  and  Thais,  subdivided  into  Chams,  Lzo- 
tiens,  Siamese,  which  all  appear  to  belong  to  one  race 
related  to  the  Chinese;  2.  The  Burmese  and  Cam- 
bodians who  are  more  like  the  Indians ;  3.  The  Mois, 
or  Muongs,  and  all  the  savage  tribes  inhabiting  the 
valleys  of  Me-Kong,  Meinam,  Salonen  and  Irawady ; 
4.  The  Malays  and  the  tribes  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
Among  these  indigenous  populations  dwell  numerous 
representatives  of  other  foreign  races  brought  there 
by  chance,  by  commercial  enterprise,  or  in  the  hope 
of  making  their  fortunes.  Among  them  are  Euro- 
peans of  all  nationalities,  Chinese  from  the  eighteen 
provinces  and  Cingalese,  Madrasis  and  natives  of 
Calcutta. 

The  vicariates  apostolic  and  the  dioceses,  to  the 
number  of  sixteen,  have  grown  up  gradually  in  these 
regions  since  the  sixteenth  century,  by  dint  of  un- 
wearying patience,  and  at  the  cost  of  indescribable 
efforts  and  the  generous  shedding  of  Christian  blood. 


THE  VATICAN 

It  is  in  the  Siamese  mission  at  Bangkok  that  we 
find  the  large  College  of  the  Assumption.  It  was 
founded  and  is  managed  by  missionaries  and  accom- 
modates more  than  400  students.  A  few  years  ago 
when  M.  Doumer,  then  Governor- General  of  Indo- 
China,  visited  it,  he  offered  warm  and  well  deserved 
congratulations  to  the  superior,  Father  Colombet,  on 
the  success  of  the  work  there.  Not  long  ago  the  King 
of  Siam  ordered  a  public  competition  between  the 
pupils  of  the  various  royal  or  other  schools  of  Bang- 
kok. The  conditions  of  this  competition  were  pub- 
lished; the  prize,  to  be  divided  equally  between  the 
first  two  competitors,  was  a  sum  of  2,500  pounds 
sterling.  One  of  the  professors  at  the  palace  school, 
a  former  pupil  of  the  missionaries'  college,  obtained 
permission  to  compete,  and  the  college  also  presented 
three  candidates  meeting  the  required  conditions. 
The  competition,  which  lasted  five  days,  was  attended 
by  about  thirty  persons.  The  palace  school  professor 
stood  first  and  the  pupils  of  the  college  obtained 
second,  third  and  fourth  places.  The  second  com- 
petitor, a  young  boy  of  seventeen  and  a  Catholic  of 
an  old  family,  went  to  London  to  complete  his  train- 
ing at  the  King's  expense. 

In  1898,  the  mission  of  Siam  built  a  large  hospital 
for  Europeans.  Father  Romien,  a  missionary,  was 
its  architect  and  designed  the  whole  establishment 
with  its  dependencies  in  such  an  excellent  manner  as 
to  win  general  admiration.  In  fact,  a  Protestant 
paper  even  said:  "If  we  did  but  consider  Bangkok 
and  its  European  community,  we  might  say  that  the 

130 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

hospital  is  perhaps  too  luxurious.  But  it  is  dedicated 
to  Saint  Louis,  who  declared  that  nothing  can  be  too 
magnificent  for  the  suffering  members  of  humanity." 

On  his  return  from  a  visit  to  England,  made  a  few 
years  ago,  the  King,  Chu-la-long-Korn,  in  welcoming 
the  missionaries,  spoke  to  them  concerning  the  im- 
pressions of  his  journey,  and  stated  that  His  Holiness 
Leo  XIII  had  interested  him  above  everybody  else. 
In  fact,  :he  portrait  of  the  Holy  Father,  which  had 
been  handed  him  by  the  apostolic  nuncio  in  Paris, 
occupied  a  place  of  honor  in  his  palace.  He  liked  to 
repeat:  "I  was  cordially  received  everywhere,  bet- 
ter even  than  I  had  dared  to  hope;  but  all  that  was 
official.  Only  at  the  Vatican  did  I  find  a  father's 
soul.  One  feels  that  there  is  something  divine  in  that 
heart." 

In  the  Burmese  mission  we  find  one  of  the  most 
admirable  instances  of  Christian  charity, — a  fine  es- 
tablishment recently  founded  for  lepers  by  Father 
Wehinger,  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions.  In  a  large 
enclosure,  eight  pavilions,  four  for  men  and  four  for 
women,  have  been  erected,  where  250  patients  have 
already  found  a  home.  The  staff  is  composed  of 
two  missionaries,  six  Franciscan  Missionaries  of 
Mary  who  went  out  in  1897,  one  catechist,  one  school- 
master, a  clerk,  and  four  servants. 

Several  other  missions  also  keep  up  leper  settle- 
ments, where  missionaries  and  religious  women  sacri- 
fice their  lives  generously  in  the  heroic  exercise  of 
deeds  of  charity.  They  cannot  forget  the  fact,  that 
sooner  or  later  they  will  be  attacked  by  the  terrible 

131 


THE  VATICAN 

malady  which  science  is  yet  powerless  to  cure.  But 
their  reward  is  in  Heaven,  and  meanwhile  they  live 
on,  knowing  that  they  are  serving  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
persons  of  their  poor  patients,  whom  the  world  holds 
in  horror,  and  that  they  are  doing  much  to  preserve 
from  this  terrible  scourge  thousands  of  human  lives 
which  would  certainly  be  infected  beyond  the  enclos- 
ure walls  by  contact  with  these  poor  wretches  whom 
they  have  gathered  around  them  and  separated  from 
their  fellow-citizens. 

The  districts  of  Tong-king,  of  Annam  and  of 
Cochin-China  now  enjoy  religious  peace  under  the 
government  or  protectorate  of  France.  They  con- 
tain eight  vicariates,  in  charge  of  the  Society  of  For- 
eign Missions,  and  three  others  intrusted  to  the  Span- 
ish Dominicans.  The  number  of  Catholics  exceeds 
800,000.  These  are  marvelous  results  when  one 
looks  back  over  the  thirty  years  since  the  French  oc- 
cupied the  land.  One  shrinks  with  horror  as  one 
remembers  the  unutterable  persecutions  which  once 
afflicted  those  ill-fated  missions.  From  1883  to  1886 
more  than  50,000  Catholics  were  massacred,  and  hun- 
dreds of  Christian  stations  were  burned.  Even  to- 
day the  missionaries  have  to  fight  against  the  powerless 
hatred  and  the  falseness  of  the  cultured  classes  and 
the  mandarins  who  sometimes,  unfortunately,  have 
good  excuses  for  their  unrighteous  dealings,  in  the 
conduct  of  Europeans  towards  them. 

A  passing  tribute  should  be  paid  to  him  who  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  of  these  Indo-China  missionaries, 
and  it  should  be  recorded  that  the  Catholic  religion 

132 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

suffered  a  great  loss  in  July,  1898,  by  the  death  of 
Father  Six,  who  had  then  reached  the  age  of  seventy. 
He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  na- 
tive priests  of  the  vicariate,  and  indeed  of  all  Indo- 
China.  First  confessor  of  the  faith,  then  rector  of 
Phat-Diem,  Father  Six  was  ever  a  striking  example 
of  piety  and  practical  common  sense.  Wondrous  are 
the  works  which  he  undertook  and  carried  through 
with  unvarying  success:  embankments  to  finally  win 
from  the  sea  those  lands  which  bit  by  bit  were  being 
undermined;  churches  and  chapels  which  the  visitor 
cannot  fail  to  admire  for  their  elegant  and  bold  de- 
signs ;  homes  for  the  poor  and  wandering,  and  shelters 
for  children, — all  these  he  undertook  and  executed 
simultaneously.  At  the  same  time  he  was  careful  to 
give  to  all  religious  ceremonies  the  solemn  and  grand 
effects  which  please  the  faithful  and  which  enhance 
the  dignity  of  our  Holy  Church  in  the  eyes  of  pagans. 
Well  versed  in  Annamite  jurisprudence,  he  soon 
came  to  be  the  most  respected  arbiter  of  the  region, 
and  consequently  enjoyed  great  personal  influence. 
The  highest  officials  of  the  country  were  delighted  to 
be  counted  among  his  acquaintances,  and  the  official 
representatives  of  the  Protectorate  were  always  ready 
to  acknowledge  the  great  services  he  rendered  to  the 
French  cause,  which  had  become  indeed  the  nation's 
cause.  In  appreciation  of  all  these  services,  he  was 
fittingly  made  a  Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 


133 


THE  VATICAN 

CHINA 

China,  with  her  enormous  population  of  about 
430,000,000  pagans,  has  long  attracted  to  her  soil  the 
best  of  our  Catholic  workers.  But,  alas,  in  spite  of 
centuries  of  effort,  in  spite  of  untold  expense  and  of 
rivers  of  blood  shed  in  almost  every  province,  the  re- 
sults obtained  are  meager.  In  all  the  Empire  there 
are  barely  one  million  and  a  half  of  Christians.  The 
cause  of  this  lack  of  success  must  be  sought  in  the 
antipathy  or  rather  the  hatred  of  the  cultured  classes 
and  mandarins  towards  Europeans,  in  the  love  of  the 
Chinese  for  material  things,  the  slight  attention  they 
pay  to  supernatural  questions  and  above  all,  to  the 
total  absence  of  religious  liberty,  although  there  is 
a  sign  that  this  will  be  changed  under  the  new  re- 
gime. 

At  various  dates  China  signed  treaties  securing 
considerable  privileges  to  the  missionaries  and  mis- 
sions. Such  were,  for  instance,  the  treaties  of  1844, 
negotiated  by  M.  de  Lagrene,  French  plenipoten- 
tiary; that  of  Tientsin,  May  27,  1858;  and  of  Peking 
in  1860;  and  more  recently,  after  the  last  armed  in- 
tervention of  the  European  powers,  and  the  taking 
of  Peking,  the  Decree  of  March  15,  1899,  obtained  by 
M.  Pichon,  French  Minister  to  China,  and  Monsignor 
Favier,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Picking.  But  one  thing 
is  certain,  these  treaties  have  done  little  to  abolish  the 
resistance  of  the  Celestials,  nor  have  they  diminished 
their  antipathy  for  strangers. 

After  the  signing  of  these  treaties  and  before  the 

134 


decree  of  March  15,  1899,  what  terrible  disasters 
we  have  to  register.  There  is  not  a  single  mission 
which  has  not  cruelly  suffered.  Christian  communi- 
ties have  been  pilfered,  churches  burned,  presbyteries 
ruined,  missionaries  massacred,  and  faithful  Catholics 
imprisoned  or  exiled.  The  provinces  of  Szechwan 
and  of  Kwangsi  rank  first  in  the  numbers  of  Chris- 
tian martyrs.  Here  we  find  the  names  of  Fathers 
Mabileau,  Rigaud,  Hue,  Berthollet  and  Mazel. 
Kweichou  mourns  for  Fathers  Neel  and  Muller; 
Yunnan  has  lost  Fathers  Baptifaud  and  Terrasse; 
Kwangtung  was  the  scene  of  Father  Chanes'  tragic 
death;  Tientsin  was  overwhelmed  by  the  horrible 
drama  of  1870;  Kansu,  by  the  death  of  Father  J/ean 
de  Triora;  and  Hupe  by  that  of  Father  Delbrouck, 
who  at  the  end  of  1898,  was  slaughtered  and  horribly 
mutilated  along  with  83  Christians. 

And  what  has  been  and  is  still  the  life  of  those 
other  missionaries?  Lost  in  a  little  village  in  the 
mountains  or  in  a  large  city  with  only  a  few  Chris- 
tians round  them,  thousands  and  even  millions  of 
pagans  ever  watching  them,  they  are  subjected  to 
calumnies  of  all  sorts.  The  more  absurd  the  tales 
brought  against  them,  the  more  readily  are  they  be- 
lieved. Sometimes  these  calumnies  are  spread  in 
good  faith  by  men  who  believe  them,  sometimes  they 
are  invented  by  the  cultured,  the  mandarins,  the  first 
comers.  Anonymous  posters,  infamous  hand  bills, 
accuse  the  missionaries  of  having  committed  the  most 
heinous  and  extraordinary  offenses,  for  the  odious 
imputations  invented  centuries  ago  are  still  believed 
10  135 


THE  VATICAN 

by  the  people.  They  readily  believe  that  missionaries 
tear  out  the  eyes  of  dying  men,  or  use  children's  brains 
to  make  strange  remedies  for  various  diseases.  Jour- 
nalists falsely  announce  that  during  a  certain  night, 
at  a  stated  hour,  some  church  was  burned,  some  pres- 
bytery sacked,  and  thus  the  hatred  of  the  pagans  is 
stimulated.  They  are  urged  to  imitate  these  imagi- 
nary exploits;  while  at  the  same  time  the  false  news 
spreads  alarm  in  the  ranks  of  the  Christians  and 
obliges  the  missionaries  to  be  ever  watchful. 

Can  one  realize  what  it  is  to  live  ever  a  prey  to 
anxiety,  less  on  one's  own  personal  account  than  for 
the  precious  institutions  of  which  one  has  the  charge, 
or  for  well-beloved  spiritual  children?  Can  one 
imagine  the  weight  which  crushes  the  heart  and  the 
band  of  iron  which  presses  on  the  mind?  And  that 
is  the  life  of  many  missionaries  in  China.  Not  every- 
where, of  course,  does  this  condition  prevail.  There 
is  a  sensible  difference  between  the  existence  of  the 
priests  stationed  in  the  coast-towns,  and  open  ports, 
such  as  Shanghai,  Hangchow,  Peking,  and  that  of 
the  Gospel  preachers  inland,  in  Kweichau,  Kwangsi, 
Hunan,  Szechuen,  et  cetera.  In  the  provinces  where 
the  Europeans  are  little  known,  where  the  cannon 
has  never  been  heard,  where  steamboats  have  not 
penetrated,  Catholic  priests  enjoy  only  a  minimum  of 
freedom.  They  cannot  build  an  elevated  church,  or 
install  a  convent  of  Chinese  nuns,  or  call  European 
nuns  to  their  assistance,  or  even  openly  visit  a  girls' 
school;  and  it  would  be  difficult  for  them  to  appear 
commonly  in  the  cassock  worn  by  missionaries  in  Man- 

136 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

H- 

churia.  The  difference  between  these  two  categories 
is  seen  at  first  glance. 

Go  into  the  North — to  Mukden,  Tientsin,  Peking, 
Shanghai — and  you  will  see  fine  churches  with  grace- 
ful spires,  decorated  with  massive  towers,  constructed 
in  the  midst  of  populous  cities  or  on  high  hills  domi- 
nating immense  plains.  In  Canton  you  will  admire 
that  superb  granite  cathedral  built  by  Monsignor 
Guillemin.  Go  then  to  Szechuen,  Kweichau,  Hunan, 
Kwangsi,  Shansi  and  you  will,  as  a  general  rule,  find 
humble  oratories  hidden  behind  walls  and  looking 
outwardly  like  ordinary  dwelling-houses.  At  Kwei- 
yang,  where  for  a  time  the  Catholics  enjoyed  a  certain 
liberty,  they  dared  to  add  a  Chinese  tower  to  their 
oratory,  but  they  would  have  hesitated  to  put  up  a 
Gothic  or  Roman  tower. 

Certain  rights  which  our  priests  have  obtained  in 
principle  and  which,  are  necessary  to  apostolic  action, 
are  preserved  with  great  difficulty.  We  will  quote 
merely  one  example.  In  1865  a  French  minister 
plenipotentiary  in  China,  .M.  Berthemy,  wished  to 
determine  one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Peking 
and  entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  Celestial  Em- 
pire by  which  missionaries  were  allowed  to  purchase 
property,  lands  or  houses,  without  obtaining  an  au- 
thorization from  the  mandarin.  The  agreement  was 
observed  fairly  well  for  a  few  months;  but  soon  the 
provincial  authorities  refused  to  recognize  it  and  in- 
sisted on  an  authorization  being  first  obtained;  and 
naturally  small  and  great  mandarins  all  hastened  to 
refuse  such  authorization.  Things  came  to  such  a 

137 


THE  VATICAN 

point  that  M.  Gerard,  then  French  Minister  to  China, 
was  obliged  to  take  up  the  matter  again  and  in  a 
series  of  able  communications  at  length  forced  the 
Tsung-li-ya-men  to  clearly  define  the  terms  of  the 
first  agreement  and  to  give  orders  enforcing  its  ob- 
servance. 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  all  obstacles  Catholicism 
is  progressing  in  China,  especially  in  places  where  re- 
lations are  more  frequent  with  Europeans.  At  Pe- 
king, for  instance,  and  in  Kiang-nan  not  alone  the 
poor  and  humble  come  to  seek  the  true  God,  but  also 
merchants,  landowners,  agriculturists,  and  even  men 
of  wealth,  or  at  least  those  who  are  well-to-do.  For 
greater  developments,  we  must  trust  in  the  future, 
which  seems  fairly  secure,  thanks  to  the  decree  of 
March  15,  1899,  and  to  the  recent  political  change. 

This  decree  recognizes  that  the  Catholic  religion 
and  worship  are  spread  throughout  all  the  provinces 
of  China  and,  to  avoid  conflicts  and  insure  harmony 
between  the  population  and  the  Christians,  determines 
the  manner  in  which  official  relations  shall  be  estab- 
lished between  imperial  representatives  and  mission- 
aries. The  official  text  runs  as  follows: 

"Should  any  serious  difficulty  arise,  in  whatsoever  province 
it  may  be,  and  should  it  be  impossible  for  the  missionaries 
and  mandarins  to  agree  amicably  as  regards  the  matter  in 
dispute,  the  bishop  and  missionaries  of  that  place  must  re- 
quest the  intervention  of  the  minister  or  consul  of  the  power 
to  which  the  Pope  has  intrusted  spiritual  protectorates." 

These  words  contradict  all  idea  of  the  nationaliza- 

138 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

tion  of  missions ;  they  indicate  and  officially  affirm  that 
the  Protectorate  regime  is  and  shall  remain  the  system 
under  which  dealing  may  be  established  between  the 
Chinese  State  and  the  Catholic  Church.  The  power 
alluded  to  in  the  decree  is  not  indicated  more  ex- 
plicitly; but  by  virtue  of  the  treaties  concluded  with 
the  Chinese  Government,  confirmed  by  long  practice 
and  by  very  numerous  testimonials  of  gratitude  on 
the  part  of  Propaganda  and  of  the  missionaries  them- 
selves, France  is  the  nation  which  is  called  upon  in  all 
the  forty  vicariates  apostolic  of  China,  that  is  to  say, 
in  all,  with  one  single  exception,  to  defend  religious 
interests. 

In  this  same  decree  the  bishops  are  declared  to  hold 
equal  rank  and  dignity  with  the  viceroys  and  govern- 
ors, which  appears  to  be  a  mark  of  very  high  esteem ; 
the  vicars  general  and  archpriests  "rank  with  the 
treasurers,  provincial  judges  and  stewards";  and  the 
other  priests  "with  prefects  of  the  first  and  second 
class."  All  matters  of  etiquette  are  provided  for. 
The  missionaries  of  different  degrees  in  the  Catholic 
hierarchy  are  authorized  to  "request  to  see"  the  Chi- 
nese functionaries  of  similar  rank  and  to  treat  in 
friendly  manner  with  them  concerning  religious  mat- 
ters; while  the  mandarins  are  enjoined  to  "negotiate 
without  delay  in  conciliatory  manner  and  to  seek  a 
solution  to  difficulties." 

Does  this  mean,  as  has  been  alleged,  that  hence- 
forth, the  liberty  of  Catholicism,  her  preachers  and 
her  faithful  will  be  complete?  Certainly  not.  Even 
those  who  obtained  the  decree  cannot  believe  it;  yet 

139 


THE  VATICAN 

it  is  a  great  forward  step,  at  which  we  must  truly  re- 
joice, while  hoping  that  the  new  state  of  things  in  the 
Chinese  Republic  will  still  further  benefit  the  Church. 

Let  us  leave  the  future  now  and  look  at  the  present, 
and  also  on  the  past.  That  which  strikes  us  most  in 
the  work  of  missions  in  China  and  in  the  missionaries' 
labors  is  the  great  number  of  pagan  children  who  have 
become  Christians.  The  Chinese,  as  is  well  known, 
are  rather  willing  to  forsake  their  children,  especially 
the  girls.  Our  priests  and  nuns  have  been  ingenious 
enough  to  organize  "baptizers"  of  both  sexes  who  go 
into  town  and  village  to  confer  the  sacrament  of  re- 
generation on  these  poor  little  forsaken  beings,  and 
to  found  orphanages  where  they  receive  and  educate 
the  little  waifs  whom  death  has  spared.  The  three 
missions  of  the  province  of  Szechuen  in  particular 
have  always  been  remarkable  for  this  work  of  spiritual 
and  corporeal  salvation.  Thus,  each  year  in  those 
provinces  more  than  100,000  children  are  baptized; 
there  are  also  some  in  the  northern  part  of  Chang- 
tong  and  in  many  other  missions. 

European  nuns  have  come  successfully  to  the  aid 
of  the  missionaries.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  are  at  Peking,  at  Tientsin,  Ningpo  and  in  other 
towns.  The  Franciscan  missionary  Sisters  are  set- 
tled at  Tche-fou,  at  T-chang,  and  have  even  pene- 
trated into  the  interior  of  China  and  into  Mongolia, 
while  nuns  of  various  other  orders  are  scattered  in  all 
the  chief  towns.  The  Little  Brothers  of  Mary  man- 
age most  of  the  European  schools  in  China,  whether 
at  Peking,  Shanghai,  T-chang,  or  Ou-tchanfou. 

140 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

They  teach  French  to  the  children  and  students,  as 
the  Lazarist  missionaries,  the  Jesuits  and  the  priests 
of  the  Foreign  Missionary  Society  do  also.  Besides 
these  European  religious,  native  catechists,  tertiaries 
and  religious  women  lend  most  important  help  in  the 
good  work.  They  all  labor  together  in  the  various 
institutions,  orphanages,  hospitals,  dispensaries,  phar- 
macies, where  they  exercise  great  influence  over  the 
natives. 

To  sum  up,  there  are  in  China  about  800  mission- 
aries belonging  to  ten  congregations,  administering 
thirty-nine  vicariates  apostolic;  forty,  if  we  count 
Thibet.  More  than  600  of  these  are  French.  Let 
us  hope  that  the  era  of  persecutions  will  be  closed  with 
the  advent  of  these  valiant  pioneers  of  civilization  and 
Christianity,  and  the  foundation  of  the  new  govern- 
ment, and  that  God  will  soon  allow  His  emissaries  to 
gather  the  fruits  of  their  arduous  labors. 

KOREA 

The  history  of  the  mission  in  Korea  is  eventful. 
Persecutions  which  ravaged  the  kingdom  until  1880, 
led  to  the  martyrdom  of  twelve  bishops,  or  French 
missionaries,  three  of  whom  perished  in  1839  along 
with  hundreds  of  Catholics,  and  nine  in  1866.  From 
1878  to  1880  a  bishop,  Monsignor  Ridal,  and  a  mis- 
sionary, Father  Deguetta,  were  imprisoned  at  Seoul. 
But  since  then,  treaties  signed  by  Korea  with  the 
United  States,  Japan,  England,  Germany,  and 
France,  and  then  the  Sino-Japanese  war  which  en- 
tirely opened  up  Korea,  have  put  an  end  to  the  anti- 

141 


THE  VATICAN 

religious  tyranny  in  that  land.  The  new  political 
state  of  Korea,  under  Japanese  protection  is  a  guar- 
antee of  greater  stability,  peace  and  religious  liberty. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  number  of  adult  bap- 
tisms increases  steadily  and  represents  all  classes  of 
society,  even  the  highest  in  the  land. 

By  a  singular  coincidence,  it  has  been  given  us  to 
see  in  Korea  that  which  rejoiced  the  heart  of  the 
Apostle  St.  Paul  in  Rome.  Even  as  the  great  Apos- 
tle had  converted  some  members  of  Nero's  imperial 
family,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Philippians, 
4:22,  so  also  in  Korea  the  mother  of  the  King,  the 
wife  of  the  greatest  persecutor  of  Catholics  in  the 
realm,  secretly  embraced  the  Catholic  faith.  Prin- 
cesse  Marie  had  been  a  Christian  at  heart  for  many 
years.  Since  the  sinister  days  when  the  Regent 
strove  to  exterminate  the  very  name  of  Christian  from 
the  land,  she  had  been  studying  the  Catechism  and 
Catholic  prayers  by  his  side.  She  was  long  held  back 
and  chained,  so  to  speak,  by  participation  in  acts  of 
idolatry  and  superstition,  which  the  evil  events  of 
those  times  and  her  position  rendered  it  almost  impos- 
sible for  her  to  give  up.  When  she  had  broken  all 
these  bonds  and  felt  herself  free,  she  begged  for  the 
grace  of  regeneration.  Mons-ignor  Mutel  had  the 
great  consolation  of  baptizing  her  and  giving  her 
the  sacrament  of  confirmation  in  October,  1896.  A 
little  later  he  saw  her  again  to  hear  her  confession 
and  give  her  Holy  Communion.  It  was  to  be  their 
last  meeting  on  earth.  A  few  months  later  she  fell 
ill,  and  did  not  again  leave  her  bed.  The  profound 

142 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

secrecy  which  enveloped  her  conversion  rendered  it 
impossible  to  give  her  the  last  sacraments,  but  up  to 
the  very  end  she  was  attended  by  one  of  her  waiting 
women,  a  Christian,  also,  who  upheld  and  comforted 
her  by  means  of  sign  words  which  they  had  agreed 
upon,  but  which  the  people  who  surrounded  them 
could  not  understand.  Princesse  Marie  died  on 
January  8,  1898. 

A  singularly  encouraging  symptom  for  the  future 
of  Catholicism  in  Korea  is  the  love  of  the  religious  life 
wrhich  manifests  itself  among  the  young  women  of 
that  country.  Hardly  had  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul 
of  Chartres  been  settled  at  Seoul  and  Chemulpo  after 
the  persecution,  when  they  were  asked  to  open  their 
ranks  to  young  Korean  maidens  and  soon  eleven  na- 
tive nuns  and  twenty-eight  novices  or  postulants 
joined  the  European  nuns.  They  continue  to  seek 
the  veil,  which  proves  that  there  exists  among  the  peo- 
ple a  desire  for  religious  perfection  and  an  elevation 
of  Catholic  sentiment  which  had  not  been  dreamt  of. 

Such  is  the  present  state  of  Catholicism  in  that 
country,  where,  thirty-five  years  ago,  no  missionary 
could  show  himself  without  being  immediately  thrown 
into  prison  and  expelled,  if  he  escaped  beheading. 

JAPAN 

Japan  astonished  the  old  world  less  than  ten  years 
ago  by  a  sudden  revelation  of  her  intellectual  gifts, 
her  activity  and  her  technical  knowledge  of  military 
matters.  The  war  which  she  waged  successfully 
against  Russia  raised  her  with  one  bound  to  the  rank 

14-3 


THE  VATICAN 

religious  tyranny  in  that  land.  The  new  political 
state  of  Korea,  under  Japanese  protection  is  a  guar- 
antee of  greater  stability,  peace  and  religious  liberty. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  number  of  adult  bap- 
tisms increases  steadily  and  represents  all  classes  of 
society,  even  the  highest  in  the  land. 

By  a  singular  coincidence,  it  has  been  given  us  to 
see  in  Korea  that  which  rejoiced  the  heart  of  the 
Apostle  St.  Paul  in  Rome.  Even  as  the  great  Apos- 
tle had  converted  some  members  of  Nero's  imperial 
family,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Philippians, 
4:22,  so  also  in  Korea  the  mother  of  the  King,  the 
wife  of  the  greatest  persecutor  of  Catholics  in  the 
realm,  secretly  embraced  the  Catholic  faith.  Prin- 
cesse  Marie  had  been  a  Christian  at  heart  for  many 
years.  Since  the  sinister  days  when  the  Regent 
strove  to  exterminate  the  very  name  of  Christian  from 
the  land,  she  had  been  studying  the  Catechism  and 
Catholic  prayers  by  his  side.  She  was  long  held  back 
and  chained,  so  to  speak,  by  participation  in  acts  of 
idolatry  and  superstition,  which  the  evil  events  of 
those  times  and  her  position  rendered  it  almost  impos- 
sible for  her  to  give  up.  When  she  had  broken  all 
these  bonds  and  felt  herself  free,  she  begged  for  the 
grace  of  regeneration.  Mons-ignor  Mutel  had  the 
great  consolation  of  baptizing  her  and  giving  her 
the  sacrament  of  confirmation  in  October,  1896.  A 
little  later  he  saw  her  again  to  hear  her  confession 
and  give  her  Holy  Communion.  It  was  to  be  their 
last  meeting  on  earth.  A  few  months  later  she  fell 
ill,  and  did  not  again  leave  her  bed.  The  profound 

142 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

secrecy  which  enveloped  her  conversion  rendered  it 
impossible  to  give  her  the  last  sacraments,  but  up  to 
the  very  end  she  was  attended  by  one  of  her  waiting 
wfomen,  a  Christian,  also,  who  upheld  and  comforted 
her  by  means  of  sign  words  which  they  had  agreed 
upon,  but  which  the  people  who  surrounded  them 
could  not  understand.  Princesse  Marie  died  on 
January  8,  1898. 

A  singularly  encouraging  symptom  for  the  future 
of  Catholicism  in  Korea  is  the  love  of  the  religious  life 
which  manifests  .itself  among  the  young  women  of 
that  country.  Hardly  had  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul 
of  Chartres  been  settled  at  Seoul  and  Chemulpo  after 
the  persecution,  when  they  were  asked  to  open  their 
ranks  to  young  Korean  maidens  and  soon  eleven  na- 
tive nuns  and  twenty-eight  novices  or  postulants 
joined  the  European  nuns.  They  continue  to  seek 
the  veil,  which  proves  that  there  exists  among  the  peo- 
ple a  desire  for  religious  perfection  and  an  elevation 
of  Catholic  sentiment  which  had  not  been  dreamt  of. 

Such  is  the  present  state  of  Catholicism  in  that 
country,  where,  thirty-five  years  ago,  no  missionary 
could  show  himself  without  being  immediately  thrown 
into  prison  and  expelled,  if  he  escaped  beheading. 

JAPAN 

Japan  astonished  the  old  world  less  than  ten  years 
ago  by  a  sudden  revelation  of  her  intellectual  gifts, 
her  activity  and  her  technical  knowledge  of  military 
matters.  The  war  which  she  waged  successfully 
against  Russia  raised  her  with  one  bound  to  the  rank 


THE  VATICAN 

of  one  of  the  most  important  nations  of  the  world. 
From  a  religious  point  of  view,  too,  although  minds 
move  less  quickly  in  Japan  than  in  many  other  coun- 
tries, progress  has  been  relatively  considerable. 

The  history  of  the  Japanese  missions  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  comprises  four  periods.  The 
first  extends  from  1832  to  1858,  and  is  a  period  of  use- 
less attempts  at  evangelization,  which  ended  by  the 
signing  of  treaties  with  the  principal  nations  of  Eu- 
rope. The  second,  from  1858  to  1872,  revealed  the 
existence  of  old  Japanese  Christians,  who  had  pre- 
served, in  spite  of  the  lapse  of  time,  in  spite  of  mis- 
fortunes and  the  absence  of  any  priests,  that  faith 
which  the  missionaries  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  had  taught  to  their  fathers.  At  the 
same  time,  the  period  is  marked  by  numerous  perse- 
cutions. The  third,  from  1872  to  1884,  though 
marked  by  a  lull  in  the  persecutions,  restricted  liberty ; 
for  the  missionaries,  as  foreigners,  were  not  allowed 
to  go  any  distance  from  the  harbors  without  special 
authorization  and  were  forbidden  to  settle  inland, 
which  of  course  implied  the  impossibility  of  construct- 
ing churches,  opening  schools,  orphanages  and  hos- 
pitals, and  founding  parishes.  Their  activity  was  re- 
stricted to  a  small  number  of  towns  which  were  all, 
with  the  exception  of  Tokyo,  situated  on  the  coast. 

Gradually,  however,  about  1887,  a  few  missionaries 
were  able  to  obtain  recognition  as  professors  and  thus 
got  permission  to  reside  in  the  towns  of  the  interior 
where  they  taught  languages  and  the  sciences.  Since 
1873,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Maur,  those  of  the  Child 

144 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

Jesus  from  Chauffrilles  and  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres 
were  allowed  to  settle  at  Tokyo,  Kobe,  Hakodate,  to 
open  schools,  work  shops,  orphanages,  and  also  to 
establish  a  pharmacy  and  dispensary.  Then  it  was 
that  Rome  divided  Japan  into  two  vicariates  apos- 
tolic, with  two  bishops,  one  ruling  over  Northern 
Japan  and  her  islands,  the  other  over  Southern  Japan. 

The  fourth  period  opens  in  1884  with  a  decree 
dated  August  12,  declaring  that  the  Shintoist  and 
Buddhist  priests  are  no  longer  state  functionaries,  and 
that  the  nomination  and  dismissal  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
temples  are  henceforth  effected  by  the  authorities  of 
either  religion.  Nevertheless,  the  rules  concerning 
the  labors  of  the  different  sects  had  to  be  submitted 
for  approval  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  Owing 
to  this  decree,  the  two  ancient  religions  of  Japan  be- 
came autonomous  and  there  was  no  longer  a  state 
religion.  Nevertheless,  Shintoism  was  still  the  sov- 
ereign's religion  and  the  ceremonies  of  that  religion 
were  obligatory  for  a  number  of  functionaries.  But 
there  was  now  ground  to  hope  that  entire  religious 
liberty  would  finally  be  proclaimed,  which  really  hap- 
pened a  few  years  later  when,  in  1889,  absolute 
monarchy  became  constitutional.  Article  28  of  the 
new  constitution  declared:  *' Japanese  subjects  shall 
enjoy  religious  liberty  in  all  that  is  not  prejudicial  to 
peace  and  good  order,  nor  contrary  to  their  duties  as 
subjects  of  the  king." 

Great  was  the  effect  produced  by  this  declaration 
in  Rome.  Leo  XIII  had  already  created,  in  1888, 
a  third  vicariate,  that  of  Central  Japan,  and  he  now 

145 


THE  VATICAN 

proceeded,  on  April  17,  1891,  to  establish  a  fourth, 
and  a  few  weeks  later,  on  June  15,  1891,  he  estab- 
lished the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  Japan,  raising  Tokyo 
to  the  dignity  of  an  archbishopric,  with  three  bish- 
oprics for  suffragans  at  Nagasaki,  Osaka  and  Hako- 
date. Since  then  the  four  dioceses,  directed  by  an 
archbishop  and  three  bishops,  assisted  by  112  French 
missionaries  have  made  rapid  strides  in  the  develop- 
ment of  charitable  institutions  and  in  the  number  of 
converts  to  Christianity. 

Among  these  institutions,  the  first  in  importance, 
is  the  creation  of  a  band  of  native  clergy.  History 
will  be  unable  to  criticise  the  new  missionaries  in 
Japan,  as  Rohrbacher  criticised  the  former  mission- 
aries, for  not  having  tried  to  form  a  body  of  native 
priests.  The  institution  is  working  well ;  nearly  forty 
native  priests  have  been  ordained,  along  with  a  body 
of  auxiliary  catechists,  whose  training  is  less  difficult 
to  effect,  and  whose  aid  is  very  useful.  They  number 
about  three  hundred. 

In  order  to  reach  the  higher  classes  of  society,  the 
bishops  of  Japan  appealed  to  the  Marianists,  well 
known  for  their  College  Stanislas  in  Paris,  and  begged 
them  to  found,  in  the  chief  towns,  colleges  where 
sound  instruction  and  moral  and  refined  education 
could  be  given.  The  first  religious  of  this  order 
reached  Tokyo  in  1887,  with  the  Abbe  Heinrich  at 
their  head,  and  were  highly  recommended  to  the  Japa- 
nese authorities  by  the  French  Minister  in  Tokyo. 
Having  obtained  permission  to  establish  a  college  in 
the  capital,  they  hired  a  temporary  building  and 

146 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

opened  school  with  sixty  pupils.  Each  year  the  num- 
ber has  increased,  and  in  1894  the  school  opened  with 
142  pupils.  At  the  end  of  the  school  year,  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  scholars  were  still  present,  eighty- 
five  boarders  and  thirty-five  day-scholars.  Monsig- 
nor  Osouf  gave  out  certain  statistical  details  on  this 
occasion  which  show  what  various  elements  went  to 
make  up  this  interesting  institution.  He  said: 

"Of  these  hundred  and  twenty  pupils,  thirty-one  are 
Catholics,  fifteen  are  Protestants,  fifteen  catechumens,  two 
Jews,  and  fifty-seven  pagans  or  without  any  known  religion. 
The  variety  is  still  greater  if  we  consider  nationality.  Thus, 
there  are  forty-three  Japanese  boys,  twenty-three  English, 
fourteen  French,  twelve  German,  five  American,  five  Italian, 
three  Spanish,  three  Flemish,  three  Swiss,  three  Chinese, 
two  Portuguese,  two  Danish,  one  Austrian  and  one  Scottish ; 
altogether,  fourteen  nationalities  represented  in  a  college  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pupils." 

When  the  school  reopened  in  1896,  there  were  160 
pupils,  one-third  of  whom  were  Japanese;  a  second 
third  were  European  and  the  others,  half-castes. 

Towards  the  end  of  1891  the  Marianists  founded 
a  second  mission  at  Nagasaki,  close  to  the  old  Chris- 
tian establishments,  in  order  that  they  might  have  not 
merely  a  school  but  a  novitiate.  This  establishment, 
called  the  School  of  the  Star  of  the  Sea,  was  soon 
followed  by  the  opening  of  another  at  Osaka,  called 
the  Bright  Star.  Another  Marianist  college,  the 
School  of  the  Morning  Star,  has  been  officially  recog- 
nized by  the  Japanese  Government. 

147 


THE  VATICAN 

Catholic  charitable  institutions  of  all  sorts  are  also 
flourishing  in  Japan.  The  girls'  orphanages  shelter 
1,500  children;  the  boys'  orphanages  contain  even 
more.  The  Sagi-Kirchi  House  at  Tokyo  is  popu- 
larly called  the  professional  school,  on  account  of  the 
numerous  trades  taught  to  the  young  men  when  they 
leave  the  elementary  classes.  An  agricultural  or- 
phanage is  established  at  Hakodate.  Several  Cath- 
olic hospitals  exist  with  a  great  number  of  patients. 
Admirably  organized  are  the  leper  settlements  at 
Gotemba  and  Kumamoto.  In  the  latter,  the  Fran- 
ciscan Missionary  Sisters  of  Mary  devote  themselves 
to  the  alleviation  of  suffering.  In  1897  and  1898 
Cistercian  nuns  and  monks  settled  in  the  diocese  of 
Hakodate,  where  ever  since  they  have  been  doing 
much  good. 

The  Trappist  monks  at  first  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  press  during  several  months.  They  were  first 
introduced  to  the  Japanese  public  by  an  important 
Tokyo  paper  which  described  them  as  "the  strange 
foreigners."  The  writer  then  went  on  to  say: 
"Strange,  indeed,  in  this  band  composed  of  French- 
men, Flemings,  Englishmen  and  Italians.  Strange 
their  mode  of  life,  their  costume,  their  practices. 
Whence  do  they  derive  their  means  of  support? 
Mystery!  They  say  they  are  monks;  but  may  they 
not  be  spies  in  Russian  pay,  or  the  crew  of  some  whal- 
ing craft  wrecked  on  our  coast?" 

Public  opinion  was  aroused.  The  Emperor  re- 
quested one  of  his  chamberlains  to  gather  information 
concerning  them,  and  to  distribute  alms  among  them 

148 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

if  they  were  really  destitute.  But  all  doubt  disap- 
peared on  reading  the  announcement  which  Father 
Ligneul  published  concerning  the  Trappists.  One 
of  the  Sapporo  papers  printed  it  as  a  fly-sheet,  fol- 
lowing a  most  favorable  report  drawn  up  after  the 
official  inquiry.  Thus  ended,  to  the  honor  of  these 
monks,  all  the  disturbance  which  had  been  made  about 
them. 

The  Cistercian  monastery  in  Japan  also  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  papers,  especially  those  printed 
in  English,  which  expressed  great  pity  for  the  inter- 
esting victims  of  the  cloister  and  blamed  those  who 
had  imprisoned  them  "in  a  life  which  is  no  longer  in 
accord  with  our  modern  ideas,"  and  even  accused  the 
monks  of  downright  cruelty.  But  these  polemics 
ceased  so  soon  as  these  false  allegations  had  been  tri- 
umphantly refuted. 

The  press  has  great  influence  in  Japan,  and  there- 
fore a  certain  number  of  apostolic  workers  have 
turned  their  attention  to  journalism.  Our  Catholic 
friends  in  Japan  have  published  more  than  fifty  vol- 
umes in  Japanese,  dealing  with  religious  matters. 
Since  1880  they  have  carried  on,  under  various  names, 
a  review  in  which  the  most  important  theological, 
philosophical  and  scientific  subjects  are  discussed,  and 
in  which  are  to  be  found  interesting  details  of  reli- 
gious and  Catholic  life  in  Japan.  It  bears  at  present, 
the  name  of  Tenchijin,  The  Universe,  and  is  published 
in  Tokyo.  A  weekly  paper  of  more  modest  propor- 
tion, is  printed  at  Kioto,  The  Voice. 

The  Catholic  education  of  girls  has  made  great 

149 


THE  VATICAN 

progress  in  Japan,  and  yet  it  was  a  very  difficult 
problem  to  solve.  One  must  know  Japan  well  to 
understand  how  hard  it  is  to  conduct  a  school  appro- 
priate to  the  education  of  Japanese  girls,  especially 
a  boarding  school  kept  by  European  Sisters.  It 
means  two  entirely  different  worlds,  enclosed  and 
mingling  under  the  same  roof,  for  nothing  is  said  or 
done  in  a  family  in  Japan  in  the  same  way  as  in  a 
European  one.  The  problem  to  be  solved  was  this: 
the  community,  in  order  to  maintain  its  proper  char- 
acter, must  live  in  its  customary  manner,  observing 
its  rules  and  customs;  while  the  Japanese  must  be 
brought  up  according  to  the  customs  of  their  country 
as  they  are  to  continue  to  live  in  it ;  and  yet,  between 
Japanese  and  French,  the  relations  must  be  such  that 
the  contact  of  the  former  with  the  latter  shall  tend  to 
draw  them  towards  the  Christian  religion,  while  re- 
maining Japanese  children.  In  theory  nothing  seems 
easier,  but  in  practice  nothing  is  more  complicated. 
This  result  has  been  obtained  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Maur,  who  after  a  long  experimental  period,  have  at 
length  made  remarkable  progress,  thanks  to  their 
wonderful  spirit  of  abnegation.  Their  pupils  are 
daily  showing  the  fruits  of  this  teaching. 

Another  successful  effort  made  by  the  same  Sisters, 
was  the  opening  at  Tokyo  of  classes  for  arts  and  lan- 
guages, intended  for  persons  of  the  best  Japanese 
society  who  are  often  absolutely  in  need  of  this  com- 
plement of  a  European  education.  The  first  result 
for  these  young  ladies  who  showed  great  devotion  to 
their  studies,  was  their  discovery  of  quite  another  na- 

150 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

tion  in  the  same  country.  It  may  be  said,  indeed, 
that  persons  of  the  upper  classes  in  Japan  have  prac- 
tically nothing  in  common  with  those  who  fill  our 
orphanages.  The  refined  young  girl,  or  young  woman 
in  Japan  is  exquisite  in  politeness,  delicacy,  modesty 
and  distinction.  Unfortunately,  however,  she  is,  as 
a  general  rule,  excessively  timid.  The  Japanese  de- 
sire that  their  women  shall  be  taught  firmness  of 
character  and  such  accomplishments  as  they  require, 
without  troubling  about  any  other  feminine  virtues. 
This  difficult  task  demands,  on  the  part  of  teachers, 
a  great  many  rare  qualities,  and,  above  all,  much  tact 
and  patience.  The  beginnings  of  such  an  undertak- 
ing were  naturally  surrounded  with  obstacles,  and 
the  first  steps  were  slow  and  laborious,  as  well  as 
costly.  But  the  results  already  obtained  are  com- 
forting and  encouraging.  These  valiant  nuns  now 
have  under  their  charge  something  like  2,000  pupils, 
including  the  children  who  attend  the  elementary 
schools. 

We  must  not,  however,  shirk  the  fact  that  there 
are  numerous  and  powerful  obstacles  to  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Japanese  to  Catholicism.  Besides  the 
ordinary  obstacles  to  be  met  with  in  all  forms  of 
paganism  and  the  difference  in  customs  and  habits, 
the  missionary  is  confronted  with  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  bonzes,  and  their  opposition  is  perhaps 
more  strenuous  in  J#pan  than  anywhere  else,  because 
they  use  modern  arms  in  fighting  against  Catholicism : 
schools,  pamphlets,  reviews,  newspapers,  unceasing 
propaganda  both  in  the  interior  and  abroad,  even  in 
11  151 


THE  VATICAN 

Catholic  countries,  the  better  to  ruin  the  credit  of 
apostolic  laborers. 

Besides  these  obstacles,  it  seems  that  another  great 
hindrance  to  the  action  of  the  missionaries  is  the 
esprit  de  corps  which  unites  the  members  of  a  family, 
of  a  village,  of  a  corporation  and  the  pride  of  race 
which  causes  the  Japanese  to  consider  as  humiliating 
the  acceptance  of  a  religion  which  they  would  not 
have  the  right  to  prune  down  to  their  own  likes  and 
dislikes,  and  finally  the  skepticism,  resulting  from 
the  intercourse  between  Japan  and  Europe,  which 
threatens  to  overthrow  everything. 

One  of  the  causes  which  has  contributed  not  a  little 
to  give  rise  to  skepticism  and  develop  it,  is  the  multi- 
plicity of  Protestant  sects.  Some  of  these  churches 
are  only  Christian  in  name;  for,  on  account  of  the 
principle  of  free  interpretation,  they  have  come  to 
such  a  point  that  some  of  these  sects  do  not  even  be- 
lieve in  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  even  question 
the  spiritual  nature  of  the  soul  its  very  existence,  and 
the  very  existence  of  God.  Of  course,  all  Protestant 
sects  do  not  go  so  far,  and  such  advanced  theories  are 
fortunately  still  a  rare  exception.  But  the  existence 
of  such  a  large  number  of  different  churches  leads  the 
Japanese  to  imagine  that  Christianity,  like  Buddhism, 
is  so  divided  up  that  truth  is  to  be  found  neither  on 
the  one  side  nor  the  other,  and  that  there  is,  in  fact, 
no  true  religion. 

Protestant  mission  churches  are  numerous  in  Japan. 
As  soon  as  the  first  treaties  threw  open  the  doors  of 
the  Empire,  American  and  English  missionaries  has- 

152 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

tened  to  settle  there.  In  1900,  the  entire  country 
contained  36  different  sects,  with  a  staff  of  652  for- 
eign missionaries  (men  and  women),  302  ordained 
ministers,  580  native  preachers  not  ordained,  called 
assistant  preachers,  and  299  female  catechists  to  whom 
was  intrusted  the  propagation  and  explanation  of 
the  Bible.  They  then  numbered  40,578  adherents, 
and  these  figures  have  certainly  increased  since  then. 

To  this  enumeration  must  be  added  the  Russian 
schismatics,  represented  in  Japan  by  one  archbishop 
and  several  priests  sent  out  from  Russia,  and  a  native 
clergy,  with  catechists  and  23,856  adherents. 

Such  is  the  present  state  of  Catholicism  in  Japan. 
If  we  consider  that  complete  religious  freedom  dates 
back  only  some  ten  years  and  that  in  1872  hundreds 
of  Christians  were  lying  in  prison  on  account  of  their 
faith,  one  is  forced  to  admit  that  progress  has  been 
real  and  relatively  rapid. 

This  naturally  much  abridged  description  of  our 
missions  as  a  whole  shows  that  the  Catholic  Church 
may  rightly  find  great  consolation  and  much  hope  in 
the  work  going  on  in  Japan.  Nevertheless,  if  we 
consider  the  enormous  number  of  souls  to  be  con- 
verted, we  can  but  repeat  the  words  of  Our  Lord: 
"The  harvest  indeed  is  great,  but  the  laborers  are 
few."  (St.  Matthew  9:37.)  Indeed,  it  is  only  too 
true  that  the  priests  at  work  in  Japan  are  not  suffi- 
ciently numerous  and  we  urge  Christian  families  to 
send  forth  more  of  their  sons  and  daughters,  since  it 
is  of  course  in  such  homes  that  the  sacerdotal  vocation 
is  born  and  developed. 

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THE  VATICAN 

The  clergy,  both  in  the  old  Catholic  countries  and 
in  the  mission  field,  is  God's  army,  working  and  fight- 
ing everywhere  for  the  glory  and  extension  of  His 
reign.  We  should  have,  therefore,  a  very  incom- 
plete and  imperfect  idea  of  the  actual  state  of  the 
Church  in  the  world  at  large,  if  we  were  not  made 
acquainted  with  the  clergy,  their  mode  of  life,  their 
organization,  and  the  hierarchy  of  Roman  Catholi- 
cism. 

At  the  heads  of  these  men  of  God  is  the  Pope,  who 
holds  them  all  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand  and  who  can 
ask  of  them  anything  and  everything,  even  to  the 
sacrifice  of  their  lives,  which  they  will  promptly  make 
if  they  are  what  they  ought  to  be.  The  Popes  have 
been  the  first  to  set  the  example  of  the  most  absolute 
devotion  to  the  cause  of  Christ.  Of  the  two  hundred 
and  sixty-four  Popes  who  have  governed  the  Church 
up  to  our  day,  thirty-four  are  martyrs,  forty-eight 
saints  of  the  faith,  and  five  are  numbered  among  the 
Blessed. 

Under  the  Pope's  jurisdiction  the  bishops  form,  in- 
struct, direct  and  utilize  the  clergy,  assigning  each 
of  its  members  to  his  special  place  and  function,  and 
conferring  on  them  the  spiritual  powers  necessary  for 
the  salvation  of  the  Christian  peoples.  We  explained 
at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  the  character  and 
function  of  the  bishops.  It  remains  for  us,  there- 
fore, under  the  name  of  clergy,  to  describe  the  priests, 
both  secular,  that  is  to  say,  those  living  in  the  world, 
and  regular,  that  is  to  say,  those  having  taken  the 
three  vows  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience.  Then 

154. 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

we  will  take  up  the  body  of  religious  who  are  not 
priests. 

The  formation  of  a  priest  is  a  long  and  laborious 
task,  to  which  the  Church  attaches  the  greatest  im- 
portance. The  Church  instructs  with  care  and  directs 
towards  piety  the  children  who  intend  to  take  up  the 
sacerdotal  life.  For  this  purpose,  recourse  is  had  to 
the  seminaries  where  the  future  priest  enters,  gen- 
erally in  the  ''little  seminary"  in  his  twelfth  year. 
The  Church  has  always  openly  claimed  the  right  to 
perfect  freedom  in  this  delicate  and  all-important 
task.  Pius  VII,  in  a  document  dated  August  18, 
1819,  entitled  "Exposition  of  Sentiments,"  and  ad- 
dressed to  the  princes  of  the  German  Confederation, 
reminds  them  that  it  is  the  bishops'  privilege  not 
merely  to  teach  the  people,  but  to  teach  theology  and 
the  other  sacred  sciences  to  future  ecclesiastics,  either 
personally  or  through  masters  whom  they  themselves 
shall  choose ;  and  that  the  civil  power  can  neither  hin- 
der nor  limit  that  right.  Leo  XIII  develops  the 
same  thought  in  his  Encyclic  of  January  6,  1886,  ad- 
dressed to  the  Prussian  bishops. 

The  Church  first  exercised  this  right  under  the 
form  of  episcopal  schools,  the  most  illustrious  and  an- 
cient of  which  is  the  Patriarchum  of  the  Lateran  at 
Rome,  which  was  in  operation  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century;  for  there  it  was  that  St.  Eusebius  studied. 
The  second  and  fourth  Councils  of  Toledo,  531  and 
633,  also  mention  these  episcopal  schools,  which  are 
called  episcopia.  One  of  Charlemagne's  capitula- 
tions of  789,  recommends  their  development.  A 

155 


THE  VATICAN 

council  of  Rome,  825,  decrees  the  foundation  of  an 
episcopal  school  at  the  seat  of  every  bishopric,  and 
another  council  held  in  850  assigns  the  titles  of 
magister,  professor  and  doctor  for  those  schools. 
Finally,  Alexander  III,  at  the  Lateran  Council  of 
117'9  introduces  the  teaching  of  grammar  and  decrees 
that  the  schools  shall  be  free. 

The  first  precise  mention  of  seminaries  was  at  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Session  XXIII,  Chapter  18.  The 
council  had  recourse  to  the  seminaries  as  the  best 
means  of  resisting  the  attacks  of  Protestantism.  It 
was  decided  that  every  bishop  must  have  a  seminary, 
and  if  he  had  none,  he  must  erect  one.  The  foun- 
dation of  a  seminary  does  not  consist  in  the  purchase, 
assignment,  or  construction  of  a  special  building  for 
this  purpose,  but  in  the  organization  of  a  college,  that 
is  to  say,  the  establishing  of  a  college  in  a  single  build- 
ing, under  the  special  discipline  determined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  for  the  purpose  of  educating  young 
men  who  intend  to  become  priests.  A  bishop  may 
not  close  his  seminary.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of 
the  Council,  by  a  decision  dated  July,  1840,  prevented 
the  Archbishop  of  Spoleto  from  closing  his  seminary 
on  account  of  the  crushing  debts  he  had  incurred  to 
maintain  it.  According  to  the  decision  of  the  congre- 
gation, he  had  simply  to  impose  new  taxes  or  to  re- 
duce the  expenses.  The  seminary  ranks  after  the 
cathedral  church.  In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  a 
letter  of  Leo  XII,  dated  June  30,  1828,  several  dio- 
ceses can,  if  they  are  too  poor,  unite  their  funds  for 
the  establishment  of  a  common  seminary;  and  the 

156 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

Council  of  Trent  provides  for  the  division  of  the  semi- 
naries into  as  many  sections  as  the  bishop  shall  judge 
right;  hence  the  "great"  and  the  "little"  seminaries. 
A  letter  of  Cardinal  Antonelli's,  dated  June  28,  1859, 
in  the  name  of  Pope  Pius  IX,  declares: 

"When  it  is  considered  better  to  separate  the  pupils,  and 
create  two  different  establishments,  the  one  called  'little' 
seminary  and  the  other  'great'  seminary,  this  disposition  in 
no  way  modifies  the  prescriptions  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
because  the  two  separate  establishments  really  form  but  one 
single  seminary,  as  the  council  has  ordained,  and  because  by 
this  means  the  pupils  are  brought  up,  from  their  early  years, 
in  the  spirit  of  their  future  state." 

The  direction  of  diocesan  seminaries  is  by  right  re- 
served to  secular  priests,  as  these  establishments  are 
entirely  under  the  control  of  bishops.  But  religious 
may  be  called  upon  to  direct  them,  though  only  with 
the  permission  of  the  Holy  See  and  on  the  express 
condition  that  the  bishop's  jurisdiction  shall  remain 
intact  and  that  all  his  rights  shall  be  respected. 

In  the  administration  of  his  seminary  the  bishop 
is  assisted  by  two  committees,  one  for  spiritual  and 
the  other  for  temporal  matters,  composed  both  of 
canons  and  priests.  The  bishop  nominates  the  su- 
perior or  rector  and  the  directors.  The  confessor  or 
spiritual  director  is  the  most  important  person  of  the 
seminary  because  he  knows  the  real  thoughts  of  all 
the  students.  To  prevent  abuses  and  indiscretions, 
Leo  XIII  decided,  through  the  Holy  Office,  on  July 
5,  1899,  that  the  functions  of  spiritual  director  are 

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THE  VATICAN 

incompatible  with  those  of  rector  or  vice-director  of 
the  seminary.  In  all  these  prescriptions,  one  recog- 
nizes the  consummate  wisdom  of  the  Church. 

The  curriculum  in  the  small  seminaries  is  as  com- 
plete as  that  of  the  best  primary  and  high  schools. 
In  the  lower  classes,  the  elements  of  learning  and 
literature  are  taught,  then  the  sciences  with  all  their 
modern  developments,  history,  rhetoric,  and  ancient 
and  modern  languages.  After  six  or  seven  years  of 
solid  study,  the  young  candidates  for  holy  orders  enter 
the  great  seminary  where  they  continue  for  five  years, 
studying  scholastic  philosophy,  according  to  the  last 
prescriptions  of  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X,  dogmatic  and 
moral  theology,  the  exegesis  of  the  Holy  Bible,  apolo- 
getics or  the  defense  of  religion  and  the  refutation 
of  those  modern  systems  which  attack  it,  canon  law, 
the  history  of  the  Church,  and  mystical  science,  or  the 
direction  of  souls,  while  at  the  same  time,  they  apply 
themselves  to  the  exercises  of  piety  and  the  regular 
course  of  life  which  should  sanctify  them  and  render 
their  sacerdotal  careers  more  and  more  perfect. 

About  1850  the  study  of  the  classics  was  much  dis- 
cussed among  Catholics.  It  was  questioned  whether 
in  the  little  seminaries  classics,  and  above  all  pagan 
classics,  might  be  studied.  Pius  IX  in  his  Encyc- 
lical Inter  multiplices  of  March  21,  1853,  encouraged 
the  teaching  of  classics  as  well  as  the  excellent  works 
of  the  Holy  Fathers  and  the  most  famous  heathen 
authors,  after  careful  expurgation — db  omni  lobe  pur- 
gatis.  With  such  a  complete  course  of  studies,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  a  high  standard  of  intellectu- 

158 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

ality  is  maintained  among  the  Catholic  clergy  and 
that  many  remarkable  men  are  found  in  their  ranks; 
"For  the  lips  of  the  priest  shall  keep  knowledge," 
say  our  Holy  Books  (Malachi  2:7). 

The  Congregation  of  Studies  at  Rome  watches  over 
the  teaching  and  maintenance  of  traditions  which  are 
the  strength  of  all  such  studies.  Thus  it  was  that 
recently  the  congregation  censured  the  too  frequent 
use  of  national  languages  in  the  theological  and  philo- 
sophical lectures  and  the  tendency  to  neglect  the 
Latin  tongues,  in  which  are  written  the  masterpieces 
of  the  Holy  Fathers  and  theologians,  and  the  litur- 
gical formula?  of  the  sacraments,  which  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  Rome  to  enter  into  easy  communication  with 
the  pastors  throughout  the  world,  in  spite  of  their 
different  nationalities,  and  modes  of  speech. 

A  Catholic  theological  student  becomes  a  clerk 
when  received  into  holy  orders.  These  orders  are  of 
two  classes.  The  first,  called  hierarchical  or  major 
orders,  are  the  episcopate,  priesthood  and  diaconate, 
to  which  is  added  the  sub-diaconate.  The  second  con- 
sists of  four  orders  called  minor  which  include  door- 
keeper, readers,  exorcists  and  acolytes.  The  power 
to  confer  orders  belongs  only  to  bishops,  the  right  to 
the  special  bishop  having  jurisdiction  over  those  to 
be  ordained.  Ordination,  we  may  add,  is  the  occa- 
sion for  the  most  beautiful  and  most  touching  cere- 
monies of  the  Church. 

Clerks  can  have  two  sorts  of  powers:  those  of  holy 
orders  which  are  conferred  on  them  by  ordination 
and  the  powers  of  jurisdiction  necessary  to  legiti- 

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THE  VATICAN 

mately  exercise  their  powers  of  holy  orders  and  to 
govern  their  flock.  The  hierarchy  of  jurisdiction 
comprises:  the  Pope,  who  has  jurisdiction  over  the 
whole  Church  and  from  whom  flows  all  other  juris- 
diction; bishops,  who  have  ordinary  jurisdiction  over 
the  dioceses  entrusted  to  them  by  the  Pope;  priests 
and  deacons,  who  have  jurisdiction  over  the  faithful 
according  to  the  functions  which  are  entrusted  to  them 
by  the  Pope  or  by  the  bishops. 

Parish  priests  do  not  represent  a  special  order  in 
the  hierarchy  of  jurisdiction.  The  opposite  doctrine, 
called  parochialism,  nearly  divided  the  Church  into 
two  parties.  Parochialism  appeared  with  Arius,  the 
heresiarch,  who  was  the  first  to  teach  that  priests  hav- 
ing charge  of  souls,  since  called  rectors  or  parish 
priests,  are  equal  to  the  bishops.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  then  considered 
as  the  light  of  the  world,  taught  that  priests  hold 
their  jurisdiction  from  bishops,  perhaps  even  from 
God  directly  and  that,  in  any  case,  they  cannot  be  de- 
prived thereof.  Pope  Alexander  IV  condemned  that 
doctrine,  in  1255,  as  found  in  the  writings  of  Guil- 
laume  de  St.  Amour,  and  John  XXII  did  the  same 
in  1344,  as  found  in  the  writings  of  Jean  de  Poliac. 
But  the  Sorbonne  did  not  accept  this  declaration. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  taught 
that  parish  priests  were  divinely  instituted  and  had 
the  right  to  judge  with  a  deliberative  voice  in  the  coun- 
cils. 

In  1408,  the  Sorbonne  forced  the  Franciscan,  Jean 
Corel,  to  subscribe  to  the  formula,  that  "parish  priests 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

are,  within  the  Church,  minor  and  hierarchical  pre- 
lates by  the  institution  of  Christ."  In  1429,  they 
forced  the  Dominican,  Jean  Sarrazin,  to  subscribe  to 
this  formula:  "To  hold  that  the  inferior  prelates, 
whether  bishops,  or  parish  priests,  receive  their  right 
of  jurisdiction  immediately  from  God,  is  an  evan- 
gelic and  apostolic  truth."  The  Council  of  Trent, 
Session  XXIII,  Chapter  7,  also  condemns  parochial- 
ism: "If  anyone  says  that  the  bishops  are  not  su- 
perior to  parish  priests,  or  that  they  have  not  power 
to  confirm  and  ordain,  or  that  such  power  is  given 
them  in  common  with  the  parish  priests,  such  a  one 
is  anathema."  Parochialism  reappeared  again  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  In  1786,  at  the  diocesan 
synod  convened  by  Ricci,  the  Jansenist  Bishop  of 
Pistoia,  the  theory  was  again  put  forward  that  the 
parish  priests  should  have  the  right  to  sit  in  councils 
with  a  deliberative  vote.  Pius  VI  condemned  this 
thesis  and  in  the  Bull  Auctorem  fidei  of  August  28, 
1794,  declared  it  to  be  "false,  rash,  opposed  to  epis- 
copal authority,  subversive  of  the  hierarchical  re- 
gime, and  favorable  to  the  Arian  heresy." 

Today  the  best  authority  rejects,  as  is  right,  this 
spirit  of  parochialism.  It  is  now  held  that  parish 
priests  are  not  divinely  instituted,  nor  even  of  apos- 
tolic origin,  seeing  that  the  parishes  appeared  at  the 
very  earliest  in  the  second  and  fourth  centuries. 
Parish  priests  are  not  the  successors  of  the  seventy- 
two  disciples,  as  is  supposedly  deduced  from  a  formula 
of  Pope  Leo  IV  introduced  in  the  Roman  Pontifical ; 
for  this  formula  applies  to  priests  as  priests,  but  not 

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THE  VATICAN 

to  parish  priests.  The  parish  priest  is  not  a  pastor, 
properly  speaking,  because,  according  to  the  tradition 
of  the  first  centuries,  the  word  pastor  was  always  em- 
ployed as  synonymous  with  that  of  bishop.  Parish 
priests  do  not  form  the  third  degree  of  the  divine 
hierarchy;  for,  as  parish  priests,  they  are  an  ecclesi- 
astical institution.  Parish  priests  are  not  prelates, 
for  prelature  supposes  an  honorary  grade  with  ex- 
ternal jurisdiction.  Parish  priests  have  no  external 
jurisdiction,  such  for  instance  as  the  right  to  make 
laws,  to  judge  contraventions  to  such  laws  and  to 
punish  infractions  of  such  laws.  Parish  priests  have 
not  the  power  to  excommunicate.  These  are  the 
views  of  such  an  authority  as  M.  Andre  Mater. 

Besides  the  powers  of  order  and  jurisdiction,  the 
Church  has  "dignities."  All  power  of  order  or  of 
jurisdiction  entails  a  certain  dignity  in  proportion 
and  correspondence  with  those  powers.  But  above 
and  beyond  this  hierarchy  of  dignities  are  others, 
sometimes  superior  to  those  powers  and  sometimes 
merely  honorary.  A  cardinal,  for  instance,  high  as 
is  his  dignity,  is  not  always  a  bishop  and  may  be  only 
a  priest  or  even  a  deacon.  A  bishop  or  abbot,  who  is 
merely  titular,  or  who  has  resigned  his  charge,  can  have 
no  jurisdictionary  powers.  A  prelate  of  the  Roman 
court  or  an  honorary  canon  may  enjoy  rights  of  prece- 
dence and  other  privileges  but  can  have  no  power  of 
jurisdiction.  The  situation  is  similar  to  that  in  the 
army.  A  general  officer  may  be  without  a  commis- 
sion and  therefore  have  no  jurisdiction  to  exercise 
power,  while  an  inferior  officer  may  be  provided  with 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

a  commission  which  gives  him,  accidentally,  a  juris- 
diction higher  than  his  real  substantive  rank.  For 
example,  a  colonel  may  be  called  upon,  ad  interim, 
to  perform  the  duties  of  a  brigadier-general. 

Bishops  have  to  account  to  their  own  consciences 
for  the  ordinations  which  they  confer  before  God  and 
before  the  Church.  They  have,  therefore,  the  right 
and  it  is  also  their  duty  to  examine  carefully  the 
candidate  for  ordination  in  order  to  be  sure  he  is  not 
unworthy  to  receive  the  sacrament  of  holy  orders,  and 
that  there  is  nothing  irregular  about  his  candidature. 
For  instance,  ordination  is  radically  null  if  conferred 
on  unbelievers,  those  who  are  not  baptized,  on  women, 
or  if  imposed  by  force.  An  ordination  is  irregular, 
that  is  to  say  illegal,  though  not  invalid,  if  conferred 
on  illegitimate  children,  slaves,  married  men  or  on 
candidates  who  are  too  young.  The  canons  or  rules 
of  the  Church  fix,  as  their  lowest  age,  fourteen  years 
for  the  minor  orders,  twenty-one  for  the  sub-diaco- 
nate,  twenty-four  for  the  priesthood  and  thirty  for 
the  episcopate.  The  Holy  See  alone  can  modify 
these  age  limits.  Ordination  is,  furthermore,  irregu- 
lar if  conferred  on  maimed  persons,  or  the  insane, 
the  uncultivated,  the  bigamous,  bad  characters  guilty 
of  having  caused  the  death  of  men,  neophytes,  persons 
condemned  by  the  court,  those  who  have  been  twice 
baptized,  schismatics,  heretics,  apostates,  those  who 
have  paid  to  be  ordained,  those  who  have  exercised 
a  higher  order  before  having  been  advanced  to  that 
grade,  as,  for  instance,  a  minor  cleric  who  should 
have  exercised  the  functions  of  a  deacon,  et  cetera. 

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Clerics  who  have  been  legitimately  ordained  ac- 
quire privileges  which  they  cannot  renounce:  1. 
The  privilege  of  the  canon  law,  by  virtue  of  which 
whoever  assaults  a  priest  or  a  monk  incurs  by  that 
very  fact  an  excommunication  reserved  for  the  Pope. 
That  penalty  is  applicable  to  violence  on  the  part  of 
clerics  as  well  as  on  the  part  of  laymen.  The  Sacred 
Congregation  of  the  Council  condemned,  on  May  16, 
1733,  a  parish  priest  who  had  grossly  insulted  a  young 
ecclesiastic  in  his  service,  and  had  even  lifted  his  hand 
against  him.  2.  The  privilege  in  virtue  of  which  the 
ecclesiastical  tribunals  alone  have  the  right  of  judging 
clerics,  to  the  exclusion  of  civil  tribunals.  Pius  IX 
condemned  the  contrary  opinion  in  the  Acerbissi- 
mum  allocutions  of  September,  1852,  and  Nunquam 
fore  of  December  15,  1856,  which  occurred  in  the 
thirty-first  proposition  of  the  Syllabus.  3.  The  privi- 
lege of  immunity,  by  virtue  of  which  ecclesiastics 
are  exempted  from  certain  charges  or  dues:  military 
service,  lodging  troops,  communal  functions,  tutelary 
duties,  labor  duties,  taxes  in  the  form  of  carting,  et 
cetera.  4.  The  privilege  by  which  if  their  property 
is  seized  a  necessary  minimum  for  subsistence  must 
be  excepted. 

The  civil  laws  of  some  nations,  and  even  of  Catho- 
lic nations,  do  not  always  recognize  these  ecclesiastical 
privileges,  and  the  Church,  in  the  interests  of  peace, 
does  not  insist  on  their  application.  However,  she 
does  not  renounce  them  but  simply  postpones  to  the 
future  the  decision  of  the  question. 

If  ordination  confers  privileges  on  clerics,  it  also 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

imposes  duties.  They  must,  by  very  reason  of  their 
condition,  practice  ecclesiastical  virtues,  and  notably 
chastity;  abstain  from  secular  affairs  such  as  exer- 
cising the  professions  of  doctor,  surgeon,  district  at- 
torney, lawyer,  soldier,  et  cetera ;  and  must  not  under- 
take any  commercial  enterprise  without  permission  of 
the  Holy  See,  which  permission  is  granted  only  in  very 
exceptional  cases,  as  for  instance,  when  it  is  necessary 
to  maintain  a  business  in  the  family  during  the  minority 
of  the  younger  brothers  of  the  ecclesiastic.  Clerics 
must  also  abstain  from  secular  amusements,  such  as 
dancing,  theater-going,  gambling,  visiting  wineshops, 
et  cetera.  They  must  be  decent  in  their  behavior  and 
wear  the  special  costume  indicated  by  diocesan  rules. 
From  the  sub-diaconate  upwards,  they  must  recite 
daily  the  Breviary*  office,  distributed  into  seven  parts 
or  canonical  hours.  The  present  tendency  leans 
toward  the  substitution  of  the  Roman  Breviary  for 
diocesan  Breviaries.  And  finally,  every  priest  is 
obliged  to  celebrate  Mass  at  certain  times,  at  least  a 
few  times  in  the  year.  Generally  priests  say  Mass 
every  day. 

Between  secular  and  regular  priests,  or  religious, 
there  is  but  a  slight  difference  in  ordinary  duties  and 
in  their  ministry  of  the  souls  of  men.  A  priest  who 
is  a  religious  but  for  some  special  reason  cannot  con- 
tinue to  live  the  religious  life,  and  is  obliged  to  leave 
his  convent,  is  none  the  less  a  priest  and  must  submit 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  his  bishop.  The  difference  is 
more  marked  in  the  case  of  religious  who  are  not 
priests. 

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Religious  orders  rightly  hold  a  very  large  place  in 
the  administration  of  the  Church,  and  their  work  has 
been  throughout  all  the  centuries  so  brilliant  and  so 
useful  that  it  would  be  impossible  in  such  a  volume 
as  this  not  to  devote  to  them  enough  space  to  give 
the  reader  an  exact  and  precise  idea  of  the  subject. 

Monastic  institutions  are  divided  into  orders  and 
congregations.  The  religious  orders  properly  so- 
called  are  voluntary  associations  of  persons  of  the 
same  sex  who  agree  to  observe  under  a  common  rule, 
the  three  solemn  vows  of  chastity,  obedience  and  pov- 
erty. Theoretically,  religious  do  not  belong  fully 
to  the  order  of  clerics,  for  the  promise  to  seek  perfec- 
tion by  observance  of  the  three  evangelical  counsels 
of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience,  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  entrance  into  holy  orders.  During  the 
early  centuries  of  Christianity  many  monks  remained 
laymen.  But  at  present  a  great  number  of  religious 
are  also  in  holy  orders,  and  they  all,  whether  priests 
or  laymen,  are  subject  directly  to  bishops  or  to  the 
Pope,  and  form  a  part  of  the  clergy. 

Vows  may  be  defined  as  promises  made  to  God  to  ac- 
complish things  agreeable  to  Him,  but  to  the  observ- 
ance of  which  one  is  not  otherwise  compelled.  Since 
the  time  of  Boniface  VIII,  vows  have  been  divided 
into  simple  and  solemn  vows,  according  as  the  Church 
recognizes  them  as  such.  The  dispensation  from,  or 
rather  the  commutation  of,  solemn  vows  is  exclusively 
the  privilege  of  the  Pope.  One  cannot  enter  a  re- 
ligious institution  under  the  age  of  sixteen.  The 
Council  of  Trent,  however,  directed  that  girls  be  ad- 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

mitted  at  the  age  of  twelve.  On  the  other  hand,  Pius 
IX  in  the  Decree  Romani  Pontifices  of  January  25, 
1858,  insists  that  the  solemn  profession  of  a  man  shall 
not  be  considered  valid  if  he  is  under  nineteen.  More- 
over, the  parents  must  consent  to  their  children's  tak- 
ing the  step ;  but  in  case  of  a  refusal  without  any  mo- 
tive, the  bishop  may  decide  whether  the  matter  shall  be 
carried  further.  In  the  same  way,  a  married  person 
must  obtain  the  consent  of  husband  or  wife,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

After  entering  a  religious  order,  a  religious  has  five 
years  in  which  to  impugn  the  validity  of  his  profes- 
sion on  the  plea  of  constraint  or  violence.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  insisted  that  the  bishop  or  his  delegate 
shall  inquire  twice  before  the  candidate  takes  the 
habit,  and  once  before  profession,  as  to  whether  the 
candidate  is  acting  on  his  or  her  own  free  will. 

Admittance  to  religious  orders  is  regulated  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Session  XXV,  Chapters  17  and  19, 
a  circular  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  on  the  State  of 
Regulars  of  March  19,  1857,  a  decree  of  Pius  IX  of 
January  25,  1858,  a  brief  of  February  7,  1862,  and 
several  Pontifical  letters  and  acts  of  His  Holiness 
Pius  X.  First  the  candidate  is  subjected,  as  postu- 
lant, to  a  preparatory  trial,  within  the  convent  walls, 
during  a  period  which  varies  according  to  the  statutes 
of  each  order.  He  then  takes  the  novice's  habit  after 
having  shown  a  declaration  signed  by  the  bishop  tes- 
tifying to  his  birthplace,  residence,  age,  habits,  vo- 
cation, position,  education  and  degree  of  instruction. 
He  must  furnish  proof  that  he  has  no  debts  or  pe- 
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THE  VATICAN 

cuniary  obligations,  no  judicial  accusation  against 
him,  that  he  has  never  incurred  any  canonical  cen- 
sure, irregularity  or  hindrance  whatsoever.  After 
the  novitiate,  which  must  last  at  least  one  full  year, 
the  young  religious  pronounces  his  vows  according 
to  the  rules  of  his  order. 

The  solemn  vow  of  poverty  in  one  of  the  great 
orders  suppresses  all  right  of  property  for  the  re- 
ligious. He  must  make  his  will  two  months  before 
pronouncing  the  solemn  vows,  after  which  he  can  ac- 
cept neither  legacy,  donation  nor  property  of  any  sort 
without  special  authorization  from  the  Holy  Father. 
Entrance  into  religion  confers  several  privileges. 
It  enables  illegitimate  children  to  receive  sacerdotal 
orders;  it  breaks  all  obligations  formerly  contracted 
by  a  simple  vow;  it  dissolves  betrothal  promises. 

The  vow  of  obedience  obliges  the  religious  first  of  all 
to  observe  the  rule  of  the  order  concerning  the  common 
life,  food,  clothing  and,  above  all,  enclosure.  Enclo- 
sure is  the  prohibition  to  admit  within  the  convent,  any 
person  of  the  opposite  sex,  and  to  go  beyond  the  walls 
of  the  convent  without  permission  from  the  superior, 
renewed  on  each  occasion,  and  accompanied  by  some 
companion  whom  he  shall  appoint.  "They  may  not," 
says  the  Council  of  Trent  (Session  XXV,  Chapter 
4)  "leave  their  convents,  even  on  the  pretext  that 
they  are  going  to  see  their  superiors,  if  the  latter  have 
not  sent  for  them  or  ordered  them  to  go  out;  and 
whosoever  shall  be  found  without  written  permission, 
shall  be  punished  by  the  bishop  of  the  locality  as 
having  broken  the  rule." 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

The  religious  are  governed  by  a  hierarchy  of  su- 
periors, each  of  whom  directs  one  establishment  or  a 
group  of  several  establishments.  At  present,  most 
of  the  principal  orders  are  divided  into  nations,  which 
are  subdivided  into  provinces,  each  containing  several 
establishments,  houses  or  convents.  A  general  gov- 
erns the  order,  a  provincial  governs  the  province,  an 
abbot,  conventual-prior,  provost,  rector,  warden,  or 
superior,  governs  each  separate  establishment.  Ab- 
bots, being  fully  ordained  priests,  and  having  re- 
ceived episcopal  blessing,  can  give  minor  orders  to 
their  religious. 

Religious  congregations  for  women  are  now  very 
numerous.  The  members  of  these  institutions  are 
called  Sisters,  and  take  the  three  simple  vows  of  pov- 
erty, chastity  and  obedience,  sometimes  but  tempo- 
rarily. They  devote  their  lives  to  some  special  ob- 
ject, such  as  the  education  of  children,  nursing  the 
sick,  et  cetera;  they  wear  a  special  costume  and  live 
in  community.  The  Council  of  Trent,  Session  XXV, 
Chapter  9,  thus  regulated  the  relations  of  religious 
women,  with  regard  to  the  bishops:  "Women's 
monasteries  which  are  immediately  subject  to  the 
Apostolic  See  shall  be  governed  by  the  bishops,  as 
delegates  of  the  Holy  See,  notwithstanding  anything 
to  the  contrary,  and  those  governed  by  deputies  of 
the  general  chapters  or  by  other  regular  ecclesiastics, 
shall  be  left  to  their  care  and  conduct." 

But  Leo  XIII  modified  these  relations  of  depend- 
ency by  the  Constitution  Conditice  of  December  8, 
1900,  in  which  we  read:  "Bishops,  in  so  far  as  pos- 

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THE  VATICAN 

sible,  rather  than  found  or  approve  a  new  congre- 
gation, should  seek  the  assistance  of  one  chosen  from 
among  those  already  approved  and  which  have  a  sim- 
ilar object."  When  such  congregations  have  spread 
beyond  the  limits  of  their  original  diocese  this  rule 
is  laid  down:  "From  the  fact  that  they  exist  in 
several  dioceses  and  that  they  everywhere  apply  the 
same  rule  and  live  under  an  uniform  law,  it  results 
that  the  bishop's  authority  as  concerns  them  must 
be  diminished  and  limited."  Here  are  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  diminutions:  "Bishops  shall  not  be 
permitted  to  change  or  temper  the  authority  granted 
by  virtue  of  the  constitutions  either  to  the  heads  of 
the  whole  congregation  or  to  those  of  each  house. 
The  administration  of  property  owned  by  each  con- 
gregation belongs  to  the  superior  general  and  the 
council.  The  revenues  must  be  administered  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  each  congregation,  and  when 
a  congregation  has  received  from  Rome  its  final  ap- 
probation, the  bishop  cannot  insist  on  an  account  be- 
ing rendered  to  him." 

Several  important  monastic  congregations  have 
Third  Orders  connected  with  their  religious  life  and 
participating  in  their  spiritual  favors.  Leo  XIII 
defined  the  Third  Order  in  the  Bull  Auspicate  of 
September,  1882,  as  "a  simple  association  comprising 
persons  of  all  ages,  both  sexes  and  all  conditions  of 
life,  who  live  in  the  world  without  belonging  to  the 
world,  and  who  strive  together  to  faithfully  prac- 
tice the  commandments  of  God  and  the  Church,  and 
all  the  Christian  virtues,  loving  peace  and  charity, 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

showing  moderation  in  food  and  dress  and  eschewing 
the  dangerous  seductions  of  dancing  and  thea- 
ters." 

A  Third  Order  is  not  a  religious  order  properly 
so-called;  neither  is  it  a  simple  confraternity,  for  the 
system  comprises  a  novitiate,  a  profession  and  a  spe- 
cial habit.  The  foundation  of  the  first  Third  Order 
probably  dates  from  the  time  of  St.  Norbert,  who 
died  in  1134.  Benedict  XIV  again  approved  of  it 
and  gave  it  new  rules  in  1751.  The  most  widely 
spread  Third  Order,  known  under  the  name  of  the 
Seraphic  Third  Order,  was  founded  by  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  approved  by  Honorius  III,  in  1221,  by 
Nicholas  IV  on  August  17,  1289,  and  confirmed  by 
Leo  XIII  on  September  12,  1882,  and  May  30,  1883. 
The  Dominic  Third  Order  was  the  next  to  be  founded, 
and  was  approved  by  Gregory  IX  on  December  22, 
1229.  The  Servites  founded  another,  which  Martin 
V  approved  in  1424;  the  Carmelites  were  approved 
by  Nicholas  V,  in  1452,  and  Sixtus  IV,  in  1476;  the 
Augustinian  by  Sixtus  IV,  1471-1481,  and  finally, 
Francis  de  Paul  founded  the  Third  Order  of  Minims, 
which  was  approved  by  Alexander  VI,  in  1501,  and 
Julius  II,  in  1506.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Council  decided  on  May  10,  1727,  that  thereafter  the 
foundation  of  Third  Orders  should  be  reserved  for 
the  Holy  See. 

The  rules  of  the  tertiaries  are  drawn  up  by  the 
founders  or  superiors  of  each  order.  But  Leo  XIII 
took  upon  himself  the  revision  of  the  rules  of  the 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  The  rules  must  always 

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contain  a  clause  declaring  that  they  do  not  bind  mem- 
bers under  penalty  of  sin. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  tertiaries.  There  are 
those  who  live  in  common  and  those  who  continue  to 
remain  in  the  world,  without  wearing  the  religious 
habit,  which  they  nevertheless  have  a  right  to  wear 
and  in  which  they  generally  ask  to  be  buried.  They 
often  belong  to  a  group  called  a  fraternity  which  can 
be  organized  only  with  the  permission  of  the  bishop. 
All  secular  Catholics  can  belong  to  these  fraternities 
which  are  centers  of  great  piety.  To  be  admitted, 
one  must  receive  the  habit  from  a  priest  specially 
nominated  for  that  purpose  and  one  must  accomplish 
a  novitiate  of  at  least  one  year.  Then  one  must  make 
a  profession  in  the  presence  of  the  superior  of  the 
order  or  a  priest  indicated  by  him.  The  director  of 
these  fraternities  is  the  superior  of  the  order  and  the 
chaplain  is  a  priest  delegated  by  the  superior.  The 
visitor  is  a  member  of  the  order  and  his  duty  is  that 
of  an  inspector.  The  regular  tertiaries  promise  to 
wear  a  special  habit  which  is  blessed,  to  practice 
certain  mortifications,  generally  observing  days  of 
fasting  and  abstinence  over  and  above  those  pre- 
scribed for  ordinary  Catholics,  to  recite  the  Divine 
Office  daily,  or  to  say  corresponding  prayers  either  in 
private  or  in  company. 

We  may  close  this  brief  sketch  of  the  religious 
orders  with  the  following  condensed  list  of  the  orders 
under  which  the  religious  have  been  organized : 

Monks.     Benedictines  of  Monte  Cassino,  Basilians,  Vallom- 

172 


CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

brosans,  Cistercians,  Trappists,  Mechitarists,  Camal- 
dolese,  Sylvestrines,  Olivetans,  Carthusians. 

Canons  Regular.  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran,  Pre- 
monstratensian  Canons,  Canons  Regular  of  the  Holy 
Cross. 

Mendicant  Orders.  Franciscans,  consisting  of  the  Friars 
Minor,  the  Friars  Minor  Conventuals,  the  Friars  Minor 
Capuchins;  Dominicans  or  Friars  Preachers;  Carmelites; 
Hermits  of  St.  Augustine;  Servites;  the  Lesser  Orders — 
Minimo,  Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis,  Capuchins, 
Discalced  Carmelites,  Discalced  Trinitarians,  Order  of  Pen- 
ance or  Scalzetti. 

Military  Orders.  Knights  of  Malta,  Order  of  Teutonic 
Knights,  Knights  Templars.  (These  orders  were  organ- 
ized in  the  twelfth  century  in  defense  of  the  cause  of  Christ 
by  force  of  arms.) 

Redemption  of  Captives.  Trinitarians  and  Mercedarians. 
(These  orders  are  mendicants  and  follow  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine. ) 

Hospitaller  Orders.  Order  of  St.  John  of  God,  Cellite 
Brothers,  Brothers  Hospitallers  of  St.  Anthony.  (These 
orders  are  devoted  to  the  relief  of  bodily  infirmities.) 

Clerks  Regular.  Theatines,  Barnabites  or  Regular  Clerics 
of  St.  Paul,  Clerks  Regular  of  Somascha,  Camilians,  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  (also  Mendicant). 

The  Institutes  of  Simple  Vows. 

The  Eastern  Orders.  Monks  of  St.  Anthony,  Monks  of  St. 
Pachomius,  the  Basilians. 

Such  is  the  magnificent  array  of  religious  men  who 
enrich  the  Church  with  their  devotion  and  efforts, 
often  of  a  heroic  nature,  especially  in  the  missions 
where  they  work  side  by  side  with  the  secular  clergy. 
There  may  be  some  surprise  at  the  great  number 

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of  these  orders  and  religious  congregations.  But 
this  is  due  to  the  diversity  of  work  which  they  under- 
take and  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  founded. 
With  the  needs  of  Christianity  and  the  extension  of 
the  faith,  each  century  and  especially  the  nineteenth 
has  produced  a  new  blossoming  of  devotion.  To  this 
long  list  of  monks  should  be  added  the  religious  con- 
gregations for  women,  still  more  numerous  and  liv- 
ing for  the  most  part  under  the  rule  of  one  of  the 
great  orders. 

What  is  the  total  number  of  these  religious  men 
and  women?  The  statistics  have  not  yet  been  drawn 
up.  But  if  we  start  with  the  admitted  number  of 
400,000  priests  or  thereabouts,  both  regular  and 
secular,  throughout  the  whole  Church,  we  would  not 
be  far  wrong  in  fixing  the  number  of  religious  who 
are  not  priests  at  about  the  same,  while  the  number  of 
religious  women  is  almost  double.  Therefore  we  may 
say  there  are  about  400,000  monks  and  800,000  nuns. 
If  these  be  added  to  the  priests,  we  have  a  grand  total 
of  one  and  a  half  millions  of  persons  consecrated  to 
God.  A  religion  producing  such  a  harvest  of  virtue, 
self-sacrifice  and  devotion  to  the  Divine  Master,  Jesus 
Christ,  is  not  a  dead  religion  or  even  a  decadent  re- 
ligion as  our  enemies  would  have  us  believe. 

Another  reflection,  suggested  by  the  multiplicity 
and  ancient  character  of  the  greater  number  of  these 
large  religious  families,  is  admirably  developed  by 
Montalembert  in  his  work,  "The  Monks  of  the  West," 
viz.,  that  monasticism  does  not  die  out.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  shows  vigor  fully  explicable  only  by  admitting 

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CATHOLIC  ORGANIZATION 

its  divine  origin.  Like  the  oaks  in  the  forests,  these 
humble  religious  stand  forth,  braving  the  tempests  and 
attacks  of  time  as  well  as  the  buffets  and  insults 
of  men.  If  persecution  hews  them  down,  they  spring 
up  from  their  uninjured  roots,  stronger  than  ever. 
The  love  of  Christ  and  of  the  Church  which  courses 
through  their  veins  conquers  even  death. 

With  such  collaborators  supporting  the  secular 
clergy,  the  Church  can  fearlessly  meet  all  the  diffi- 
culties which  the  world  opposes  to  her  divine  mission. 
These  obstacles  are  numerous  and  are  ever  present; 
and  in  the  two  following  chapters  we  will  examine 
those  which  she  has  been  called  upon  to  overcome  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  we  shall  throw  light  on  the  pacific 
victories  gained  by  the  Vatican,  victories  worthy  of  all 
praise. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY  OF 
CATHOLICISM 

The  Political  Principles  of  the  Holy  See — The  Chief  Politico- 
Religious  Affairs  of  Recent  Years  in  France,  Belgium, 
Austria,  Hungary,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Russia,  Poland,  Germany,  the  United  States,  Canada,  Central 
and  South  America,  Turkey,  the  Balkan  States  and  Greece, 
Scandinavia  and  Holland. 

THE  enemies  of  Catholicism  and  many  persons  in- 
different to  church  questions  or  not  well  informed 
on  the  subject  are  apt  to  imagine  that  the  Vatican 
is,  above  all  things,  a  political  center,  and  that  the 
principal  occupation  of  the  Holy  Father  and  his 
cardinals  is  to  construct  and  reconstruct  political  com- 
binations, to  interfere  in  the  home  affairs  of  states, 
to  embarrass  governments,  to  try  to  impose  every- 
where their  ideas  and  even  their  preferences,  and  all 
this  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  the  real  masters  of 
the  world  under  the  cloak  of  religion  in  accordance 
with  the  old  adage,  Divide  ut  regnes.  But  nothing 
is  farther  from  the  truth. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  quite  as  false  to 
imagine  that  the  Vatican  has  nothing  to  do  with  poli- 
tics; it  is  obliged  to  take  politics  into  consideration. 

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POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

Having  in  charge  the  Catholic  Church,  it  must  defend 
the  institution.  This  is  its  mission  and  duty,  so  that 
it  must,  consequently,  occupy  itself  with  all  anti-re- 
ligious legislation,  with  any  administrative  persecu- 
tion of  parties,  and  with  all  sectarian  personalities, 
whose  avowed  aim  is  often  the  destruction  of  Catholi- 
cism. The  Vatican  is,  therefore,  absolutely  forced 
to  intervene  in  political  affairs  and  to  fight  for  the 
liberty,  and  it  may  be  for  the  very  existence,  of  the 
Church,  by  seeking  the  support  of  the  Catholics  of 
each  nation,  encouraging  them,  directing  their  efforts 
and  inspiring  them. 

But  this  aggressive  course  is  pursued  only  tempo- 
rarily. When  calm  has  been  restored,  and  the  Church 
is  no  longer  opposed  in  the  accomplishment  of  its 
divine  mission,  Rome  is  only  too  happy  to  lay  aside 
a  policy  of  opposition  and  to  enter  once  more  into 
pleasant  relations  with  the  constituted  authorities,  a 
state  of  things  which  generally  prevails.  The  Vati- 
can is  then  quite  ready  to  confine  itself  to  its  proper 
part,  that  of  watching  over  the  purity  of  the  faith, 
encouraging  good  and  aiding  in  its  development,  and 
providing  the  different  dioceses  with  worthy  pastors. 

It  may  be  said  that  history  teaches  that  this  was  not 
always  the  case,  and  the  critics  of  the  Church  may  de- 
clare that  at  times,  as  under  Gregory  VII,  Rome  as- 
pired to  dominate  the  world,  while  at  another  period  she 
exercised  the  worst  sort  of  tyranny,  as  in  Spain.  But 
true  students  of  history  do  not  suffer  themselves  to  be 
blinded  by  such  prejudices.  They  know  that  the  po- 
litical cruelties  of  some  princes,  who  pretended  to  be 

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THE  VATICAN 

acting  in  the  name  of  religion,  should  not  be  laid  at 
the  door  of  the  Papacy,  and  that  the  Vatican  has  al- 
ways vigorously  protested  against  being  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  in 
France,  the  bloody  repressions  of  the  Inquisition  in 
Spain,  and  the  base  persecutions  of  the  Jews  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The  Inquisition  never 
held  an  auto-da-fe  in  Rome,  and  there  the  Jews  lived 
in  security  and  peace. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  during  the  Middle 
Ages  and  especially  under  Gregory  VII,  the  social 
organization  was  quite  different  from  that  of  today. 
The  feudal  system  then  existed,  with  the  Pope  uni- 
versally recognized  as  its  supreme  head.  Kings  them- 
selves requested  him  to  sanction  their  rights  and 
accepted  him  as  their  suzerain.  The  Kingdom  of 
Hungary,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  the  King  of 
Rome,  et  cetera,  were  in  fact  Pontificial  creations. 
In  response  to  complaints  of  the  people  the  Pope,  as 
suzerain,  exercised  against  culpable  monarchs  the 
same  rights  of  remonstrance,  blame,  and,  if  necessary, 
coercion  and  deprivation  of  power,  as  those  exer- 
cised by  them  against  their  own  vassal  lords.  This 
was  the  public  law  of  the  epoch.  And  just  as  certain 
powerful  nobles  reprimanded  by  their  suzerain  re- 
fused to  submit,  and  took  up  arms  against  him,  so 
on  several  occasions  kings  and  emperors  were  un- 
willing to  recognize  the  suzerain  authority  of  the  Pope 
and  defended  their  pretensions  by  force.  But  in  gen- 
eral the  people  supported  the  Pope,  their  only  pro- 
tector against  royal  tyranny;  and  finally,  after  a 

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POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

troubled  period,  the  conflict  came  to  an  end  by  an 
agreement  or  by  a  Canossa. 

This  we  learn  from  impartial  history  and  the  study 
of  that  remarkable  collection  known  to  all  scholars, 
the  "Regesta  Pontificum  Romanorum"  of  the  Ger- 
man historian  Jaffe,  the  official  acts  and  documents 
emanating  from  the  Sovereign  Pontiffs  daring  the 
period  about  which  we  are  now  speaking. 

Consequently,  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  judge 
the  policy  of  the  Holy  See  in  the  nineteenth  and 
twentieth  centuries  by  likening  it  to  that  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  one  of  his  first  encyclicals,  Leo  XIII 
points  out  very  clearly  the  principles  of  the  present 
policy  of  the  Church, — respect  for  civil  authority, 
established  by  God  for  the  temporal  good  of  peoples ; 
respect  for  the  Church,  also  established  by  God  for 
their  spiritual  good;  reciprocal  aid  and  accord  of  the 
two  powers  in  order  to  attain  more  surely  their  aim 
and  to  fulfill  more  completely  their  mission;  liberty 
of  action  for  the  two  powers,  each  in  the  sphere  prop- 
erly assigned  to  it,  showing  a  kindly  spirit  in  the  case 
of  any  conflict. 

In  the  examination  which  now  follows  of  the 
principal  politico-religious  matters  that  have  arisen 
during  the  last  half  of  the  last  century  in  the  differ- 
ent quarters  of  the  globe,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
Church  has  always  been  faithful  to  the  principles 
enumerated  above,  even  when  her  pacific  intentions 
were  misunderstood  and  she  was  unjustly  attacked 
and  robbed  by  her  enemies.  We  shall  now  take  up 
these  matters  country  by  country,  beginning  with 

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THE  VATICAN 

France,  which  was  until  recently  the  first  Catholic 
Power  of  the  world. 

FRANCE 

In  France,  the  state  has  recently  separated  itself 
violently  from  the  Church,  breaking  away  without 
the  participation  in  the  act  of  the  other  contracting 
party  and  putting  an  end  to  that  solemn  diplomatic 
act,  the  Concordat,  which  had  regulated  for  a  century 
the  relations  between  the  two  powers.  The  result  of 
this  method  of  bringing  about  this  separation  is  that 
France  finds  herself  in  a  peculiar  situation:  the  Con- 
cordat not  having  been  regularly  abrogated,  a  change 
of  opinion  in  the  French  Parliament  would  make  it 
possible  to  restore  the  old  order  of  things  by  a  simple 
vote  of  both  houses  and  without  its  being  necessary 
to  enter  into  any  new  diplomatic  negotiations  or  the 
drawing  up  of  another  Concordat. 

These  Separation  Laws  have  been  accepted  neither 
by  the  Pope  nor  by  the  French  Catholics,  who  have 
shown  themselves  in  this  crisis  admirably  united  to 
their  bishops  and  the  Holy  See.  This  unanimity  is 
all  the  more  remarkable  because  it  was  preceded  by 
a  short  moment  of  hesitation.  Some  Catholics,  very 
faithful,  however,  to  the  Church — the  "Green  Cardi- 
nals" they  have  been  called,  because  most  of  them  were 
members  of  the  French  Academy,  the  prevailing 
color  of  whose  official  uniform  is  green — issued  a  pub- 
lic letter  advocating  the  acquiescence  in  that  portion 
of  the  new  law  calling  for  the  formation  of  Public 
Worship  Associations  on  the  part  of  the  faithful, 

180 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

which  were  to  manage  the  religious  affairs  of  the 
parishes  and  the  dioceses  and  take  over  the  property 
and  edifices  belonging  to  the  Church.  But  when  the 
Pope  raised  his  voice  and  condemned  this  anti-re- 
ligious legislation,  pointing  out  the  true  duty  of  all 
good  Catholics,  these  distinguished  sons  of  the  Church 
immediately  obeyed  like  the  most  humble.  By  taking 
this  ground,  His  Holiness  Pius  X  raised  himself  high 
above  any  care  for  material  things  and  stood  firmly 
for  the  conservation  of  the  faith  in  its  purity  and 
its  integrity.  "The  Pope  is  the  supreme  guardian 
of  the  faith,"  His  Holiness  has  said,  "and  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Church  as  it  was  established  by  its 
Divine  Founder.  It  was  Christ  himself  who  declared 
that  the  Church  was  based  on  St.  Peter  and  the 
Apostles,  the  Pope  and  the  bishops.  This  holy  hier- 
archy cannot,  in  consequence,  be  modified  or  de- 
stroyed without  modifying  or  destroying  the  very  re- 
ligion of  Christ.  But  these  Separation  Laws  brush 
aside  the  Pope  and  the  bishops  and  recognize  only 
the  priests  and  the  curates.  This  is  not  Catholicism; 
it  is  simply  Presbyterianism." 

How  it  could  have  been  expected,  therefore,  that 
the  Pope  would  accept  such  a  modification  of  the 
existing  state  of  things?  His  resistance  must  not  be 
attributed  to  a  spirit  of  obstinacy;  it  was  absolutely 
necessary  for  him  to  take  this  position.  In  fact,  the 
worst  enemies  of  the  Church,  after  having  loaded  him 
with  insults,  finally  admitted  that  he  had  saved  it  by 
his  firmness. 

In  a  word,  the  separation  of  Church  and  state  in 

181 


THE  VATICAN 

France  was  brought  about  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
conscience  of  all  Catholics  revolted  at  it.  That  it 
was  accomplished  in  this  way  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  the  leaders  in  the  act  were  unbelievers  and  athe- 
ists, who,  without  even  consulting  the  interested  party, 
arrogated  to  themselves  the  right  to  regulate  the  faith 
of  this  party,  to  modify  the  traditional  form  of  the 
Church,  to  deprive  it  of  its  property,  which  had  been 
acquired,  however,  in  conformity  with  anterior  laws, 
to  change  the  object  for  which  this  property  was  given 
to  the  Church  and  even  to  annul  pious  funds  left  in 
favor  of  the  dead  and  established  under  the  care  and 
protection  of  the  state.  All  this  has  appeared  most 
tyrannical  to  French  Catholics,  especially  when  they 
compared  this  arbitrary  and  vexatious  legislation 
with  the  liberal  and  considerate  legislation  concerning 
Catholics  which  prevails  in  other  countries  where  they 
are  not  even  in  the  majority.  It  is  in  France  only 
that  Separation  has  this  iniquitous  character.  In  the 
United  States,  Brazil,  England  and  Germany  the 
Catholic  Church  is  treated  in  the  most  amicable  man- 
ner. Certain  powers  are  even  officially  represented 
at  Rome,  and  all  welcome  to  their  capitals  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Holy  See.  Though  in  some  cases 
the  Catholics  of  those  countries  may  ask  for  certain 
ameliorations  of  their  state,  they  enjoy  great  liberty 
and  do  not  seriously  complain  of  their  lot. 

It  is  the  hope  of  the  Vatican  that  in  the  near  future 
those  who  govern  France  will  understand  better  the 
true  interests  of  the  nation  and  instead  of  keeping 
alive,  by  their  vexatious  acts,  in  the  mass  of  the  Catho- 

182 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

lie  body  a  state  of  irritation  that  is  harmful  to  the 
country,  they  will  show  a  spirit  of  peace  and  wisdom 
by  turning  to  an  amicable  compromise  with  the  Holy 
See,  as  did  Germany  when  she  put  an  end  to  the  Kul- 
turkampf. 

BELGIUM 

Although  Belgium  is  the  immediate  neighbor  of 
France,  her  politico-religious  affairs  do  not  at  all  re- 
semble those  of  the  latter  country.  During  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century,  since  1884,  it  has  had  a  Catholic 
government,  which  the  electorate  seems  disposed  to 
continue,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  enemy  to 
overthrow  it.  The  country  moves  on  in  a  state  of 
moral  and  material  prosperity  that  is  enviable.  It  is 
a  very  notable  fact  that  the  Catholic  ministries  owe 
this  long  lease  of  power  largely  to  the  social  organiza- 
tions for  which  Belgium  is  famous.  These  organiza- 
tions, therefore,  call  for  some  description. 

In  the  front  rank  among  them  should  be  placed  the 
Aumoniers  du  Travail,  a  society  composed  of  priests 
and  founded  by  Monsignor  Doutreloux,  Bishop  of 
Liege,  whose  aim  is  the  amelioration  of  the  condition 
of  the  working  classes.  The  members  of  this  society 
are  scattered  all  over  the  country  and  always  stand 
ready  to  come  to  the  material  and  spiritual  aid  of 
workmen.  To  this  society  is  due  the  creation  of  the 
Hotelleries  Ouvrieres,  a  sort  of  popular  "shelter," 
which  are  very  much  appreciated  by  the  working 
classes.  The  one  at  Marchiennes  is  on  a  large  scale, 
and  though  simple,  is  exceedingly  comfortable;  it  is, 
for  instance,  lighted  with  electricity  and  is  provided 
is  183 


THE  VATICAN 

with  bath-rooms.  To  many  workingmen  this  estab- 
lishment is  a  veritable  palace,  though  the  cost  is  kept 
within  the  possibilities  of  the  most  modest  purse,  since 
one  is  lodged  and  fed,  with  clothes  washed  and 
mended,  for  twenty-two  francs  a  fortnight,  a  little 
over  four  dollars  and  much  under  a  pound.  At  the 
restaurant  of  this  Hotellerie,  the  dinner  costs  60 
centimes  (about  12  cents  or  sixpence),  the  supper  35 
centimes  (7  cents  or  three  pence  halfpenny),  and  the 
breakfast  20  centimes  (4  cents  or  twopence). 

Another  very  popular  semi-charitable  organization, 
founded  by  the  Abbe  Mallerts,  is  the  Boerenbond,  or 
Peasants'  League,  whose  aim  is  to  buy  on  easy  terms 
for  the  peasant  farmers  the  things  which  they  need 
for  the  cultivation  of  their  land — chemical  manures, 
implements,  et  cetera.  The  league  is  also  very  use- 
ful as  an  intermediary  in  all  matters  of  insurance. 
Nearly  five  hundred  societies  are  affiliated  with  this 
league,  with  a  membership  of  more  than  20,000  fam- 
ilies. An  average  of  2,000,000  francs  a  year  is  spent 
in  purchases  of  various  kinds  and  from  two  to  two 
thousand  five  hundred  insurance  policies  are  taken 
out  through  this  organization.  In  connection  with 
the  league  are  loan  banks,  which  have  proved  to  be 
of  great  aid  to  the  agricultural  class.  The  annual 
deposits  surpass  2,000,000  francs  and  the  loans 
500,000  francs. 

Le  Foyer  de  I'Ouvrier,  founded  at  Liege,  aids  work- 
men to  become  the  owners  of  their  homes.  It  is  a 
very  prosperous  organization.  Up  to  the  present 
time  it  has  bought  houses  to  the  value  of  about 

184 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

3,500,000  francs,  while  it  has  loaned  to  workmen  for 
this  purpose  more  than  2,000,000  francs. 

The  Cooperative  Dairies  of  Luxemburg  offer  an 
interesting  example  of  what  can  be  accomplished  by 
proper  association.  Belgian  Luxemburg,  which  used 
to  suffer  from  the  poor  quality  of  its  pastures  and,  in 
consequence,  from  the  inferiority  of  its  dairy  products, 
is  today  one  of  the  richest  and  best  countries  in  this 
respect.  Founded  in  1895  by  the  Abbe  Couturiaux, 
parish  priest  of  Ortho,  and  the  Abbe  Crousse,  director 
of  the  St.  Joseph  College  at  Virton,  this  association 
aids  farmers  in  the  sale  of  their  milk  and  teaches  them 
the  best  methods  of  production.  Its  membership  is 
over  15,000,  who  enjoy  through  its  means  an  increase 
in  profits  amounting  to  a  round  two  million  francs 
per  year.  The  organization  also  embraces  250  syndi- 
cates whose  business  it  is  to  buy  manures  and  fodder 
for  cattle.  The  Luxemburg  League,  the  creation  of 
Dr.  Jacques,  Mayor  of  Florenville,  has  brought  about 
the  federation  of  these  syndicates.  The  leading 
Catholics  and  the  priests  of  the  Province  of  Luxem- 
burg have  been  most  devoted  in  their  support  of  this 
popular  movement,  giving  their  time  and  money 
without  stint,  and  there  are  instances  where  parish 
priests  have  turned  farmers  in  order  to  show  the 
peasants  how  to  get  all  that  is  possible  from  coopera- 
tion. 

The  Abbe  Cype  has  devoted  himself  to  the  interests 
of  the  seafaring  population  of  Belgium.  Through  his 
efforts  buildings  have  been  erected  in  which  is  taught 
the  best  method  of  preparing  fish  in  various  ways. 

185 


THE  VATICAN 

He  has  also  founded  on  a  model  boat  a  school  for  in- 
struction in  fishing  and  everything  pertaining  thereto. 

Among  other  social  and  popular  organizations  in- 
stituted in  Belgium  by  lay  Catholics  and  the  clergy 
may  be  mentioned  the  Apostelhuizen,  the  creation  of 
the  Abbe  de  Meerleer,  rector  of  Notre  Dame  at  St. 
Nicolas,  a  pleasant  village  composed  of  cottages 
each  one  of  which  shelters  an  old  married  couple  who, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  in  poverty  and  sickness, 
would  be  separated  in  the  public  hospitals,  but  who 
are  here  kept  together  to  the  end.  Then  there  is  the 
Maleken,  an  association  of  from  600  to  700  fathers 
who  receive  each  Sunday,  at  a  very  low  price,  clothes 
for  themselves  and  their  children,  as  well  as  tobacco, 
whence  the  name  "Tobacco  School,"  by  which  it  is 
known  among  the  people. 

La  Mat  emit 6  de  Ste.  Anne,  the  lying-in  hospital 
founded  by  M.  Leon  Somzee,  and  inaugurated  by  the 
Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Malines,  is  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  aristocratic  ladies  of  Belgium,  with  the 
Princesse  de  Croy  as  president.  It  is  housed  in  a 
large  building  near  the  Lake  of  St.  Josse,  at  Brus- 
sels. All  the  rules  of  the  best  modern  hygiene  are 
observed  in  this  model  establishment,  which  contrib- 
utes greatly  to  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  the  young 
mothers  of  the  working  classes. 

This  account,  incomplete  though  it  be,  of  the  social 
work  in  Belgium  of  the  Catholic  priesthood  and  lay- 
men suffices  to  explain  the  affection  which  the  people 
feel  for  the  Catholic  Party  and  the  fidelity  with  which 
it  is  supported  on  the  hustings.  Rome  has  been 

186 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

struck  by  this  Belgian  activity  in  things  social,  and 
several  priests  engaged  in  this  work  have  been  called 
to  the  Eternal  City  to  give  the  numerous  theological 
students  there  the  benefit  of  their  experience  and  to 
teach  the  Belgian  methods. 

In  1909,  on  the  occasion  of  the  celebration  through- 
out Belgium  of  the  completion  of  the  first  quarter  of 
a  century  of  Catholic  government,  M.  Schallaret, 
head  of  the  cabinet  then  in  power,  delivered  at  Liege 
a  spirited  speech  in  which  he  rightly  attributed  the 
vitality  of  the  Catholic  government  to  the  interest 
which  it  has  shown  in  everything  which  affects  the 
well-being  of  the  people.  In  a  word,  the  Belgium  of 
today,  so  flourishing  with  and  because  of  Catholicism, 
naturally  enjoys  the  most  amicable  relations  with  the 
Holy  See,  which  was  not  formerly  the  case  under  the 
anti- Christian  government  of  M.  Frere-Orban. 

AUSTRIA 

Austria  is  also  a  country  where  the  state  is  tradi- 
tionally Catholic,  and  where  the  Church  is  respected 
and  loved  by  the  people  as  well  as  by  the  court.  But 
the  Church  has  had  to  battle  for  the  preservation  of 
its  independence  and  its  acquired  rights,  and,  in  doing 
so,  has  been  closely  associated  with  the  history  of  the 
Austrian  Monarchy.  It  will  be  remembered,  for  in- 
stance, that  the  injudicious  meddling  of  Joseph  II 
in  the  details  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mass  caused 
him  to  be  called  by  Frederick  the  Great,  "My  Brother 
the  Sacristan,"  and  brought  about  a  conflict  with 
Rome.  But  the  present  Emperor,  Francis  Joseph, 

187 


THE  VATICAN 

who  has  no  liking  for  the  Voltairean  and  bureau- 
cratic spirit  of  Josephinism,  concluded  with  Rome 
the  Concordat  of  August  18,  1855,  which  guaranteed 
the  liberty  and  the  autonomy  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
sanctioned  the  canon  law  in  matters  pertaining  to 
marriage,  recognized  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  cer- 
tain cases,  and  provided  for  schools  which  were  to  be 
Catholic  in  their  teachings  and  were  to  be  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  But  this  com- 
pact has  never  been  carried  out  in  all  its  articles,  and 
is  in  fact  practically  annulled  today.  The  enemies 
of  the  Church  having  gained  a  stronger  and  stronger 
foothold  in  the  Austrian  Parliament  have  succeeded 
in  passing  a  series  of  laws  which  more  and  more  re- 
strain its  provisions,  until  the  Concordat  is  now  little 
else  than  a  memory. 

Thus,  Articles  15  to  17  of  the  bill  passed  on  De- 
cember 21,  1867,  recognize  the  Church's  jurisdiction 
only  in  its  own  interior  affairs  and  take  away  from 
the  clergy  the  direction  of  the  schools.  The  law  en- 
acted on  May  25,  1868,  permits  the  opening  of  non- 
sectarian  schools  and  denies  the  Church  further 
action  in  matrimonial  cases.  The  only  participation 
of  the  Church  in  school  affairs,  as  provided  in  this  law, 
is  in  the  matter  of  religious  instruction.  Children 
of  different  religions  sit  together  on  the  same  benches 
and  the  school-master  may  be  Catholic,  Protestant  or 
Jew.  In  fact,  he  is  sometimes  anti-Christian  and 
even  an  atheist. 

In  1870,  when  the  dogma  of  Papal  infallibility  was 
proclaimed,  the  Austrian  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 

188 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

fairs  did  not  hesitate  to  send  the  Vatican  a  dispatch 
in  which  he  declared  that  the  Concordat  now  fell  of 
itself  and  was  abrogated,  because  one  of  the  contract- 
ing parties  was  no  longer  what  it  was  at  the  moment 
the  compact  was  made,  as  though  it  could  be  held  that 
Papal  infallibility  extended  to  all  the  acts  of  the  Pope 
and  was  not  limited  to  questions  of  the  faith  and  of 
Christian  morals.  But  it  was,  nevertheless,  thought 
best  to  declare  the  abrogation  in  a  formal  law,  which 
was  done  on  May  7,  1874 ;  yet  this  bill  maintained  in 
force  all  the  concessions  made  by  the  Pope  in  the 
Concordat,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  necessity  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  having  the  government's  ap- 
proval for  all  nominations  to  curacies  and  benefices. 
Finally,  the  endowment  of  the  clergy  was  regulated 
by  the  bill  which  became  law  on  April  19,  1885,  and 
against  which  the  Catholic  episcopacy,  which  had  not 
been  consulted  thereon,  protested  in  vain. 

The  patience  of  the  Austrian  Catholics  was  now 
exhausted.  Weary  of  the  tyranny  of  the  anti-cleri- 
cals and  free  masons,  irritated  at  seeing  the  useless- 
ness  of  their  protests,  the  Catholics  decided  to  organize 
themselves  for  the  struggle  with  the  same  arms  as 
their  opponents,  and  consequently  turned  all  their 
efforts  towards  Parliament.  Two  great  Catholic 
parties  were  formed,  which  soon  counted  several  hun- 
dred thousand  supporters, — the  Popular  Catholic 
Party,  Katholische  Folks  parted  and  the  Christian 
Social  Party,  Christlich  Sociale  Partei.  The  conse- 
quences of  this  line  of  policy  soon  began  to  show 
themselves,  the  first  sign  being  the  naming,  in  Oc- 

189 


THE  VATICAN 

tober,  1898,  of  Baron  Despauli,  chief  of  the  Popular 
Catholic  Party,  to  the  post  of  Minister  of  Commerce, 
in  place  of  a  so-called  Liberal,  that  is,  the  anti-clerical 
Dr.  Baernreither. 

In  the  meantime,  the  other  Catholic  party  was 
hard  at  work,  and  the  Christian  Socialists  succeeded 
in  getting  the  majority  in  the  Vienna  Municipal 
Council  and  in  placing  their  leader,  Dr.  Lueger,  at 
the  head  of  the  municipality  as  mayor  of  the  capital 
of  the  Empire.  He  was  an  intelligent  and  energetic 
man,  and  devoted  his  time  and  his  energies  to  his 
post. 

The  all-important  question  in  the  eyes  of  the  Cath- 
olics was  to  free  public  instruction  from  the  yoke  of 
the  anti-clerical  Liberals  and  the  atheists.  In  1898, 
the  Vienna  Municipal  Council  passed  by  a  very  large 
majority  a  resolution  calling  for  the  transformation 
of  the  non-sectarian  primary  schools  into  sectarian 
and  Christian  institutions.  A  powerful  association, 
whose  purpose  was  the  reform  of  the  school  legisla- 
tion— the  Katolischer  Schulverein  fur  Oesterreich — 
soon  counted  a  membership  of  50,000,  with  subscrip- 
tions amounting  to  some  $80,000  per  year,  which  en- 
abled it  to  found  at  Vienna  a  Catholic  Normal  School 
and  to  multiply  the  non-state  schools. 

The  Austrian  state  universities  all  have  a  Catho- 
lic Theological  Seminary,  that  of  Innsbruck  Uni- 
versity, where  the  faculty  is  composed  of  Jesuits, 
being  particularly  celebrated.  But  the  instruction 
given  in  the  other  universities  is  saturated  with 
Liberalism  and  even  atheism.  So  the  efforts  of  the 

190 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

Catholics  were  directed  towards  the  foundation  of  a 
non-state  Catholic  university  and  an  association  was 
formed  for  this  purpose,  the  Katholischer  Universi- 
tdts  Verein,  which  soon  brought  together  nearly  a 
million  of  francs,  and  the  university  was  established 
at  Salzburg. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  ardor  and  perse- 
verance of  the  Austrian  Catholics  have  not  been 
sterile  and  their  excellent  example  might  be  followed 
by  the  Catholics  of  other  nations  where  there  is  just 
ground  for  complaint.  Religious  peace  was,  conse- 
quently, gradually  returning  in  Austria,  when,  only 
a  few  years  ago,  Catholicism  suddenly  found  itself 
plunged  into  other  unexpected  difficulties.  This 
happened  when  the  Pan-Germanic  agitation  was  at 
its  height.  A  very  bold  political  party  dreamed  of 
uniting  all  the  German-speaking  lands  into  a  single 
confederation,  which  meant  the  incorporation  of  Aus- 
tria, or  at  least  the  German-speaking  part  of  it,  in 
the  German  Empire.  It  was  held  by  these  visionary 
agitators  that  the  chief  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the 
realization  of  their  scheme  was  the  Catholic  religion, 
whose  followers  remained  more  firmly  attached  to 
their  traditions  and  to  Austrian  autonomy  than  was 
the  case  with  their  Protestant  fellow-citizens.  Hence 
the  first  duty  of  these  enthusiasts  was  to  make  Austria 
Protestant.  So  they  set  to  work,  and  soon  the  inter- 
national press,  which  was  hostile  to  Catholicism,  began 
to  announce  that  Catholics  were  going  over  in  vast 
numbers  to  Protestantism.  The  evil  was  not  so  great 
as  was  pretended,  but  it  is  true  that  in  certain  parts 

191 


THE  VATICAN 

of  the  country,  these  ardent  partisans  did  succeed  in 
detaching  a  large  number  of  Catholics  from  their  old 
faith.  The  nuncio  at  Vienna  at  this  moment  was 
that  very  distinguished  diplomat,  Monsignor  Taliani, 
who  later  became  a  cardinal,  and  his  very  prudent 
course  largely  contributed  to  calm  the  public  mind. 
The  Pan-Germanic  movement  gradually  weakened 
and  finally  disappeared,  at  least  in  so  far  as  hostility 
to  Catholicism  was  concerned,  and  most  of  the  new 
recruits  of  Protestantism  finally  returned  to  the  old 
faith. 

HUNGAEY 

As  regards  religious  matters,  Hungary  is  in  a  po- 
sition peculiarly  its  own.  At  the  request  of  its  Duke, 
St.  Stephen,  Pope  Sylvester  II  made  Hungary  a 
kingdom,  and  the  Duke  became  its  first  king,  enjoy- 
ing extraordinary  privileges  in  the  matter  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  ecclesiastical  property  and  in  the 
nomination  of  the  different  posts  in  the  Church. 
These  privileges  are  now  centered  in  the  Emperor 
of  Austria,  who,  as  is  well  known,  is  the  apostolic 
King  of  Hungary.  But  the  two  sovereignties  and 
the  two  nations  are  quite  distinct.  According  to  the 
Stephanie  Constitution — Stephen  I  was  the  first  king 
—the  ruler  of  Hungary  must  be  a  Roman  Catholic; 
he  must  be  crowned  by  the  primate  of  Hungary,  the 
Prince  Archbishop  of  Gran  Esztergom,  or,  in  his 
absence,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Kalocsa-Bacs.  The 
Queen  is  crowned  by  her  chancellor,  the  Bishop  of 
Veszprem.  When,  in  1867,  Francis  Joseph  was 
crowned  King  of  Hungary,  the  crown — the  same  as 

192 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

that  worn  by  St.  Stephen — was  placed  on  his  head 
by  the  primate  and  the  prime  minister.  The  cardi- 
nal-primate is  ex-officio  legate  of  the  Holy  See,  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Magnates,  chancellor  of  the 
king,  prefect  of  the  Comitat,  first  baron  of  the  king- 
dom and  takes  precedence  over  all  other  dignitaries. 

These  titles  and  honors  demonstrate  how  high  the 
Church  stands  in  Hungary  and  how  intimately  it  Ss 
associated  with  the  administration  of  the  state.  The 
prerogatives  of  the  King  in  Church  matters  show  the 
same  thing.  He  keeps  an  eye  on  the  ecclesiastical 
and  the  school  endowments;  he  may  return  to  the 
state  livings  which  are  declining;  he  may  permit  the 
alienation  and  mortgaging  of  Church  property;  and 
he  administers  vacant  bishoprics.  The  close  associa- 
tion of  the  King  and  Church  is  also  seen  in  another 
field.  The  invasion  of  the  Mongols,  and,  later,  -that 
of  the  Turks,  caused  the  disappearance  of  a  number 
of  bishoprics  and  abbacies.  But  the  titles  were  pre- 
served and  the  King  bestows  them  on  members  of  the 
clergy  or  of  religious  orders  who,  on  account  of  these 
titles,  have  a  right  to  the  mitre,  the  pectoral  cross  and 
the  seal  ring.  These  nominations  are  not  submitted 
to  the  Holy  See  for  approval,  because  these  prelates 
are  not  consecrated  bishops.  But  the  nomination  of 
residential  bishops  administering  a  diocese  is  always 
submitted  to  Rome,  which  alone  preconizes  them. 

The  Hungarian  episcopate  enjoys  considerable 
revenues  and  consequently  demands  nothing  from 
the  state  treasury.  In  fact,  the  state  charges  it  with 
the  support  of  many  charities.  And  still  another  tie 

193 


THE  VATICAN 

which  binds  the  Church  to  the  state  is  the  fact  that 
all  the  bishops  and  some  abbots  are  members  of  the 
House  of  Magnates,  where  they  often  play  an  im- 
portant political  part. 

Some  years  ago  a  movement  was  begun  in  Hun- 
gary to  deprive  the  Church  of  some  of  its  temporal 
privileges.  Thus  a  law  passed  in  1894  took  away 
from  the  clergy  the  keeping  of  the  birth,  marriage 
and  death  registries.  Up  to  that  time  every  subject 
of  the  kingdom  had  to  declare  himself  a  member  of 
some  denomination  accepted  and  recognized  by  the 
state.  But  today,  a  Hungarian  is  free  to  belong  to 
no  church.  Article  53  of  the  bill  passed  in  1868  and 
article  32  of  that  passed  in  1893  establish  the  reli- 
gious status  of  minors  and  leave  the  parents  no  choice 
in  the  matter.  Thus,  where  the  father  and  mother 
belong  to  the  same  religion,  the  children  are  to  be 
brought  up  in  that  religion.  But  when  the  parents 
belong  to  different  religions,  accepted  and  recog- 
nized by  the  state,  boys  follow  the  religion  of  the 
father  and  girls  that  of  the  mother.  When  the 
parents  belong  to  no  denomination,  the  children  are 
to  be  brought  up  in  one  of  those  recognized  by  the 
state.  But  persons  belonging  to  different  religions 
may,  before  marrying,  stipulate  concerning  the  reli- 
gion of  any  future  children,  this  stipulation  to  be 
drawn  up  in  due  form  before  the  proper  civil  officer. 
This  rule  especially  concerns  Catholics,  for  Rome 
does  not  permit  mixed  marriages  except  on  the  formal 
engagement  to  bring  up  the  children  in  the  Catholic 
faith. 

194 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

The  relative  strength  of  the  Catholic  and  allied 
faiths  in  Hungary  is  demonstrated  in  the  following 
table  based  on  the  census  of  1906: 

Latin  Catholics 9,919,913  or  50.99  % 

Uniat  Greek  Church 1,854,143  „  9.76% 

Orthodox  Greeks , 2,815,713  „  14.93% 

Lutherans 1,288,942  „  6.86% 

Calvinists    ,. .  2,441,142  „  12.71% 

Unitarians    68,568  „  0.35% 

Israelites    815,378  „  4.35% 

Other  Denominations 14,760  „  0.05% 

No  Religion 16 


Total  19,218,575  100% 

Though  the  Catholic  is  the  state  religion  in  Hun- 
gary, all  other  denominations  enjoy  the  greatest 
liberty.  The  state  reserves  to  itself  the  right  to  in- 
spect the  establishments  of  the  Orthodox  Greeks  and 
the  Protestants,  who  otherwise  are  left  almost  entirely 
to  themselves. 

GREAT   BRITAIN 

If,  in  spite  of  everything,  Austria  and  Hungary 
are  profoundly  Catholic  nations  and  are  always  con- 
sidered among  the  finest  jewels  of  the  Church's  crown, 
the  same  thing  cannot  be  said  of  Great  Britain,  which 
still  remains  officially  a  Protestant  country.  How- 
ever, out  of  a  population  of  45,057,000  souls  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  5,500,000  are  Catholics,  2,190,000 
being  in  Great  Britain  and  3,310,000  in  Ireland.  If 
we  examine  the  whole  British  Empire,  the  Catholic 
outlook  is  still  more  brilliant,  for  we  find  12,053,000 

195 


THE  VATICAN 

Catholic  subjects  of  the  King.  The  episcopal  hier- 
archy charged  with  the  governing  of  these  millions 
of  faithful  scattered  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
globe  also  bespeak  the  importance  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  English  world.  There  are  no  fewer 
than  thirty  archbishops,  two  of  whom  are  cardinals, 
one  hundred  and  eight  bishops,  thirty-four  vicars 
apostolic  and  twelve  prefects  apostolic. 

Though,  as  has  just  been  said,  the  Empire  is  of- 
ficially Protestant,  the  governments  of  England  and 
the  colonies  treat  the  Church  in  a  spirit  of  friendli- 
ness which  contrasts  strongly  with  the  conduct  of  the 
authorities  of  some  Catholic  countries.  The  English 
are  too  practical  a  people  to  harass  unnecessarily 
more  than  twelve  million  loyal  subjects  and  thus  keep 
up  at  home  a  permanent  cause  of  discontent  which 
could  only  check  their  expansion  in  the  world. 

The  history  of  the  rupture  between  England  and 
the  Holy  See  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII  is  too  well 
known  to  necessitate  consideration  here.  The  last 
Catholic  bishop  of  the  old  hierarchy  was  Thomas 
Goldwell,  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  who  died  in  Rome  in 
1585.  From  that  time  until  1850  England  had  no 
episcopacy,  and  though  the  Anglican  Church  was 
organized  with  bishops  and  archbishops,  the  Vatican 
does  not  recognize  the  validity  of  their  ordination, 
so  that  the  titularies  are  not  called  to  the  general  coun- 
cils at  Rome,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Orthodox  Russian 
bishops,  true  bishops,  though  they  be  schismatical. 
In  Ireland,  however,  the  regular  succession  of  bishops 
has  never  been  interrupted. 

196 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

It  was  not  until  1850,  that  Pius  IX  created  a  new 
Catholic  hierarchy  in  England,  when  he  appointed 
three  residential  bishops.  In  1878,  Leo  XIII  did 
the  same  thing  for  Scotland,  which  excited,  in  uncom- 
promising Protestant  circles,  a  momentary  agitation 
against  the  Vatican. 

After  the  long  and  rigorous  persecution  which  fol- 
lowed the  Reformation — as  late  as  1769  a  priest  was 
condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment  for  having 
administered  Communion  to  a  sick  person — the 
Catholics  of  England  finally,  in  1778,  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  right  freely  to  exercise  their  religion. 
Notwithstanding  the  scenes  of  Protestant  fanaticism 
known  as  the  Gordon  Riots,  the  Catholics  then  began 
to  open  chapels  in  several  parts  of  London.  A  few 
years  later,  nearly  forty  bishops  and  about  10,000 
priests  arrived  from  France,  driven  from  home  by 
the  French  Revolution  and  seeking  an  asylum  in 
Protestant  England.  Many  of  these  refugees  were 
in  a  state  of  utter  destitution,  and  collections  were 
taken  up  for  them  in  all  the  Anglican  churches  of  the 
archbishoprics  of  Canterbury  and  York,  producing 
the  handsome  sum  of  over  40,000  pounds.  At  the 
same  time,  Pitt's  government  accorded  the  exiled 
priests  a  monthly  subvention  of  8,000  pounds.  Sub- 
jected to  the  severest  penalties  less  than  fifteen  years 
before,  the  Catholic  religion  now  suddenly  found 
itself  not  only  a  Church  recognized  by  the  state,  but 
actually  subventioned  by  it!  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  political  motives  underlying  this  action,  the 
fact  remains  that  this  generosity  on  the  part  of  official 

197 


THE  VATICAN 

England  should  be  warmly  recognized  by  every 
Catholic  even  today,  for  few  things  so  largely  con- 
tributed to  the  uplifting  of  the  Church  in  that  coun- 
try. Many  of  these  emigrant  priests,  indeed,  re- 
mained in  England  after  the  storm  in  France  had 
blown  over,  and  by  their  admirable  charity  and  vir- 
tues won  the  sympathy  of  broad-minded  Protestants 
and  so  did  much  to  remove  British  prejudice  against 
"Popery"  and  prepare  English  public  opinion  for 
that  great  movement  in  favor  of  religious  toleration 
which  finally  brought  about  the  reparative  legislation 
of  1829. 

The  final  abolition  of  the  Test  Act,  on  February 
13,  1829,  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  for  the 
Catholic  Church  in  England.  Henceforth,  Catholics 
could  aspire  to  any  public  post  except  those  of  Lord 
Chancellor  and  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  soon  all  the 
old  cause  of  strife  and  division  was  forgotten.  To- 
day, forty-two  Catholics  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords 
and  eighty-one  in  the  House  of  Commons.  A  Catho- 
lic has  been  Lord  Mayor  of  London  and  another  has 
been  Chief  Justice  of  England;  there  are  some  fifty- 
two  Catholic  barons,  seventeen  lords  who  are  not 
peers  and  twenty  members  of  the  Privy  Council.  It 
can  well  be  understood,  therefore,  that  at  the  time  of 
Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee,  Cardinal  Vaughan  cele- 
brated with  gratitude  the  astonishing  progress  of 
Catholicism  in  England  during  the  Victorian  era  and 
glorified  "the  regime  of  civil  and  religious  libertj^" 
guaranteed  by  the  English  constitution  which  ren- 
dered such  happy  results  possible.  The  eminent 

198 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

prelate  added:  "We  recall  these  facts  not  in  the 
spirit  of  foolish  boasting  but  with  feelings  of  thank- 
fulness for  the  kindly  reception  which  England  has 
given  us  and  with  gratitude  to  God  who  alone  re- 
builds the  walls  of  Zion." 

A  word  has  already  been  said  about  the  controversy 
concerning  the  validity  of  the  ordinations  in  the 
Anglican  Church.  In  the  Bull  " Apostolical  Curae" 
Leo  XIII,  after  a  careful  examination  of  the  whole 
subject,  including  most  minute  historical  researches, 
declared  such  orders  null  and  void  and  in  no  way 
attached  to  the  old  Catholic  hierarchy  before  the 
Reformation.  The  Pope  has  proved  beyond  ques- 
tion that  the  first  Anglican  bishops  were  not  conse- 
crated by  a  true  bishop  and  so  they  could  not  confer 
holy  orders  on  their  priests  and  the  episcopacy  to 
their  successors.  This  declaration  of  the  Holy 
Father  awakened  a  lively  polemic  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  where  the  Anglican  bishops  held  that  they 
were  the  veritable  successors  of  the  prelates  of  an- 
cient England.  In  1898,  the  Anglican  archbishops 
strove,  in  a  reply  to  the  bull,  to  justify  their  position, 
which  called  forth  a  counter-reply  from  the  Catholic 
bishops  of  England.  The  discussion  created  con- 
siderable agitation  in  theological  circles  in  the  United 
Kingdom. 

The  document  of  the  Catholic  prelates,  who  made 
an  eloquent  appeal  to  "our  separated  brethren"  for 
unity  in  the  Church,  closed  with  this  remarkable  pas- 
sage : 

"It  is  a  real  pleasure  to  us  to  find  in  the  concluding  por- 
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THE  VATICAN 

tion  of  your  document  so  many  things  to  which  we  can  also 
subscribe.  You  desire,  for  instance,  that  'all  should  know 
the  intensity  of  your  zeal  and  devotion  to  the  cause  of  peace 
and  unity,'  and  you  pray  that  'from  this  very  controversy 
may  spring  a  greater  knowledge  of  the  truth  and  a  more 
universal  desire  for  peace  in  the  Church  of  Christ,  the  Saviour 
of  the  World.'  In  reading  these  lines,  we  recall  that,  under 
recent  and  more  solemn  circumstances,  you  declared  that 
'the  Divine  plan  of  the  visible  unity  among  Christians  is  an 
article  of  revelation,'  to  which  statement  we  should  all  seize 
every  occasion  to  draw  attention.  Here  at  least  is  a  common 
ground  on  which  we  can  meet.  We  go  further  than  you, 
perhaps,  in  firmly  maintaining  that  this  visible  unity  is  neces- 
sary not  only  for  the  well-being  but  for  the  very  existence 
of  the  Church;  and  we  are  quite  in  accord  with  you  in  con- 
sidering how  important  it  is  not  to  let  one  be  guided  by  one's 
personal  tastes  or  one's  national  temperament,  but  'to  turn 
towards  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  to  study  patiently  what 
he  meant  by  the  establishment  of  the  ministry  of  his  Gospel.' 
May  that  happy  day  soon  come  when  you  will  understand 
with  us  that  the  secret  of  this  visible  unity  cannot  be  found 
in  that  system  which  during  a  relatively  short  existence,  has 
engendered  only  division  and  ruin,  but  that  it  resides  much 
more  in  that  unchangeable  system — the  Papacy — which, 
throughout  the  ages,  has  bound  the  nations  together  in  such 
a  brilliantly  visible  unity  that  it  wins  admiration  even  where 
it  cannot  conquer  obedience." 

This  discussion  did  not  prove  to  be  "a  brand  of  dis- 
cord," as  some  feared.  Quite  the  contrary.  On 
both  sides,  it  removed  many  prejudices,  enabled  both 
parties  to  become  better  acquainted  and  prepared  the 
way  for  that  visible  unity  which  the  Anglican  bishops 

200 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

themselves  declared  to  be  "an  article  of  the  Refor- 
mation." 

Primary  education  is  also  one  of  those  questions 
which  very  rightly  deeply  concerns  English  Catho- 
lics ;  for,  although  the  position  of  Catholicism  in  Eng- 
land as  regards  its  own  schools  is  so  much  better  than 
it  is  in  France,  where  obstacles  of  all  kinds  are  thrown 
in  its  way,  still  the  matter  causes  considerable  anxiety 
to  those  who  bear  the  responsibility  of  the  future  of 
Catholicism  in  the  former  country.  The  principal 
source  of  anxiety  is  of  a  financial  nature,  as  was  stated 
not  long  ago  by  the  English  Catholic  hierarchy  in  the 
following  words: 

"The  Catholic  Church  in  Engknd  is  no  longer  made  up  of 
the  rich  classes  of  the  country.  Its  following  is  now  prin- 
cipally among  the  poor.  It  long  ago  lost  all  its  landed 
property.  It  is  wholly  supported  by  private  offerings,  com- 
ing mainly  from  those  who  work  for  their  daily  bread.  But 
few  English  Catholics  are  found  among  the  landlord  class 
or  in  the  liberal  professions.  With  funds  thus  procured,  the 
Catholics  of  England  keep  up  all  their  religious  and  chari- 
table institutions,  the  education  of  a  clergy  constantly  grow- 
ing in  numbers,  the  building  of  school-houses,  chapels  and 
churches,  and  the  foundation  of  associations  of  all  sorts. 
For  all  these  establishments  the  English  Catholics  have  no 
invested  funds,  no  regular  income.  All  must  be  done  by 
private  subscriptions  paid  in  by  wage-earners,  for  the  most 
part,  who,  though  poor,  are  generous." 

This  statement  of  the  Catholic  bishops  on  the 
school  question  was  given  to  the  world  through  the 
medium  of  the  London  Times,  November  16,  1895, 

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which  fact  in  itself  shows  the  high  position  now  en- 
joyed in  Great  Britain  by  the  Catholic  portion  of  the 
population. 

Like  so  many  other  things  in  England,  the  pri- 
mary school  system  is  rather  complicated  and  must 
be  explained  in  some  detail  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  clearly  understand  its  bearing  on  Catholicism 
in  that  country.  For  a  long  time,  the  English  state 
held  entirely  aloof  from  the  matter  of  the  primary 
education  of  the  nation.  But  the  Ballot  Reform 
movement  of  1832,  which  meant  the  entrance  into 
English  political  life  of  the  lower  middle  classes,  sud- 
denly brought  to  the  fore  the  burning  question  of 
public  instruction.  In  1833,  a  first  subvention  of 
20,000  pounds  was  carried  through  Parliament  to  aid 
in  the  building  of  new  schoolhouses.  This  was  soon 
followed  by  500  pounds  for  the  ragged  schools. 
These  appear  small  sums  today,  but  such  was  not  the 
case  almost  a  century  ago.  At  the  same  time  a  state 
office  of  public  instruction  was  established,  but  it  may 
be  said  that  primary  instruction  in  Great  Britain  was 
not  organized  in  a  complete  manner  until  the  passage 
of  the  Forster  Act  in  1870.  This  law,  however,  did 
not  aim  to  establish  an  entirely  new  system,  nor  did 
it  pretend  to  accomplish  a  final,  perfect  and  unmodi- 
fiable  work.  On  the  contrary,  its  first  object  was  to 
utilize  the  existing  system  and  to  change  it  only  where 
public  opinion  and  modern  methods  demanded  a 
change. 

By  the  Forster  Act,  the  country  was  divided  into 
a  certain  number  of  school  districts,  which  were  to 

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POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

be  inspected  by  the  proper  state  official  in  order  to  see 
if  each  district  was  sufficiently  provided  with  schools 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  law.  Fur- 
thermore— and  this  is  the  provision  that  particularly 
interests  the  reader — every  school,  regardless  of  its 
religious  character,  would  be  recognized  as  a  primary 
school  provided  it  was  disposed  to  place  itself  under 
the  surveillance  of  royal  inspectors  for  everything 
except  religious  instruction,  and  provided  it  did  not 
make  this  religious  instruction  obligatory.  If  it  was 
found  that  the  district  was  sufficiently  supplied  with 
schools,  no  change  was  made  in  the  existing  system. 
But  if  the  contrary  was  the  case,  then  the  state  was 
to  proceed  to  the  formation  of  a  school  board  chosen 
by  the  taxpayers  of  the  district  and  charged  with  the 
exclusive  care  of  primary  education.  This  board 
would  establish  new  schools  wherever  needed,  which 
were  to  be  known  as  board  schools,  or  official  schools, 
while  the  denominational  schools  recognized  by  the 
state  were  to  keep  their  old  name  of  voluntary  schools. 
Both,  furthermore,  were  declared  to  be  equal  in  the 
eyes  of  the  state,  an  interesting  fact  in  connection 
with  the  subject  of  this  book.  While  voluntary 
schools  were  left  quite  free  in  matters  of  religion,  the 
board  schools  were  to  give  a  religious  instruction 
limited  almost  everywhere  to  a  simple  reading  of  ex- 
tracts from  the  Bible  without  comment.  This  is  the 
system  which  still  prevails  in  England. 

The  funds  of  the  English  primary  schools  come 
from  two  sources:  1.  State  money  distributed  about 
equally  among  all  the  schools  recognized  by  the  gov- 

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ernment,  whether  they  be  public  or  private,  as  the 
term  would  be  used  in  America.  This  is  more  ad- 
vantageous to  the  private  schools,  since  an  ingenious 
provision  of  the  law  of  1897  permits  the  giving  of 
more  money  to  the  poor  than  to  the  rich  school,  the 
private  schools  generally  being  poorer  than  the  others. 
2.  Money  coming  from  the  local  special  school-tax 
for  the  public  schools,  and  voluntary  subscriptions  for 
the  private  schools.  The  first  category  of  schools 
generally  receives  twice  the  amount  obtained  by  the 
second  category.  But  this  inequality  is  partially 
compensated  by  the  new  mode  of  distributing  these 
state  school  funds. 

In  a  word,  if  one  considers  the  whole  English  school 
system,  one  finds  two  sorts  of  schools  forming  part 
of  one  and  the  same  scheme  of  public  instruction,  both 
equal  in  the  eyes  of  the  state,  both  giving  the  same 
kind  of  education,  and  differing  only  in  the  matter 
of  religious  instruction.  In  school  affairs,  the  Eng- 
lish legislator  professes  to  favor  no  religious  body, 
which  is  the  more  remarkable  from  the  fact  that,  at 
the  same  time,  the  Anglican  Church  is  recognized  as 
the  official  state  religion.  But  if  the  English  do  not 
permit  a  "Godless  education,"  which  would  offend 
freedom  of  conscience  and  parental  rights,  neither 
do  they  accept  obligatory  religious  instruction.  This 
explains  why  the  state  in  England  warmly  accepts  the 
cooperation  of  individuals  or  associations  in  the  diffi- 
cult task  of  enlightening  the  popular  classes;  and  if 
these  private  parties  or  these  independent  bodies  are 
willing  to  teach  what  is  required  by  the  Department 

204 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

of  Public  Instruction,  the  state  even  offers  to  bear 
the  cost  of  this  lay  instruction  as  if  it  were  given  by 
its  own  schools. 

Since  the  last  general  elections,  which  sent  up  to 
the  House  of  Commons  a  large  number  of  members 
belonging  to  the  advanced  parties,  some  of  whom 
have  even  become  ministers,  the  whole  aspect  of  the 
question  of  primary  instruction  in  England  has  been 
profoundly  modified.  The  Radicals,  supported  even 
by  the  government,  would  make  the  English  schools 
like  those  of  France,  that  is  to  say,  place  the  monopoly 
of  primary  instruction  in  the  hands  of  the  state,  the 
schools  to  be  non-religious,  with  obligatory  attend- 
ance, and  would  exclude  all  religious  education.  A 
bill  of  this  kind  was  carried  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons and  created  deep  agitation  in  the  country.  The 
Anglican  Church,  Dissenters  and  Catholics  are  all 
united  in  opposing  this  measure  and  the  majority  of 
the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom  support  them  in 
this  opposition.  Fortunately,  the  House  of  Lords 
threw  the  bill  out,  but  the  Radicals  have  not  given 
up  hope  of  forcing  their  views  on  the  nation,  and  the 
English  Catholics  stand  ready  to  continue  the 
struggle. 

While  admiring  the  energy  and  vitality  of  the  Eng- 
lish Catholics,  who  have  had  such  a  large  measure  of 
success  in  their  efforts  of  a  political,  religious,  edu- 
cational and  economic  nature,  it  is  natural  to  ask 
who  were  the  organizing  and  directing  spirits  that 
led  them  to  victory.  Four  names,  honored  through- 
out the  world,  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection, 

205 


THE  VATICAN 

O'Connell,  Newman,  Vaughan  and  Wiseman,  and 
especially  the  last  of  the  four.  The  life  of  this 
great  cardinal,  which  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Wilfrid 
Ward,  son  of  the  celebrated  convert,  is  really  the  his- 
tory of  the  awakening  of  Catholicism  in  England, 
that  great  movement  to  which  he  gave  irresistible 
force. 

In  1840,  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  Wiseman  was 
appointed  titulary  Bishop  of  Melipotamus  and  coad- 
jutor of  Dr.  Walsh,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Midlands 
of  England.  He  left  Rome  after  a  residence  there  of 
twenty-two  years  to  take  up  his  apostolic  labors  in 
England.  His  chief  aim  consisted  in  creating  in  the 
Anglican  Church  a  state  of  mind  favorable  to  Rome, 
and  with  this  end  in  view,  he  held  aloof  from  all  irri- 
tating polemics  and  even  praised  the  generous  efforts 
of  the  High  Church  party  to  give  a  Roman  Catholic 
stamp  to  Anglicanism  and  thus  to  bring  about  a  re- 
union of  the  two  faiths. 

In  a  memorable  letter  addressed  in  1841  to  Lord 
Shrewsbury,  Wiseman  said: 

"Another  prayer  for  *the  unity  of  the  sacred  Church'  has 
been  printed  at  Lichfield  in  Latin  and  English  by  Father 
Wackerboth,  A  fine  letter  written  by  a  young  member  of 
the  University  of  Oxford,  which  appeared  some  time  ago  in 
the  Uiucer*,  declares  in  the  name  of  several  others,  that  this 
same  ardent  desire  is  the  object  of  prayers  and  fasts  during 
the  most  solemn  period  of  the  year.  Such  are  some  of  the 
public  manifestations  of  the  sincere  desire  on  the  part  of  in- 
fluential men  in  the  English  Church  to  bring  about  unity.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  ask  you  whether  you  think  one  should 

206 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

respond  thereto  by  other  than  sentiments  of  sympathy  and 
kindness  and  in  another  manner  than  by  the  assurance  of  our 
cordial  cooperation.  Should  one  remain  indifferent  when  such 
feelings  are  expressed  around  us?  On  the  contrary,  we 
should  extend  a  kindly  hand  to  those  who  are  in  trouble  and 
encourage  them." 

This  sympathetic  attitude  was  soon  destined  to  pro- 
duce fruit.  Wiseman  early  entered  into  correspond- 
ence with  the  chief  leaders  of  the  movement  at  the 
powerful  University  of  Oxford.  What  followed  is 
well  known.  In  1845,  Newman,  Ward,  Dalgairns, 
and  Christie  left  the  Anglican  Church  and  carried 
with  them  into  Catholicism  the  elite  of  the  Oxford 
movement.  It  was  then  perceived  that  there  was  a 
definite  change  in  the  religious  life  of  the  country. 
All  eyes  were  now  turned  towards  the  Catholic 
Church.  To  those  who  had  not  followed  the  Oxford 
controversy,  the  news  caused  a  veritable  stupor.  It 
was  the  first  time  since  the  Stuarts  that  England 
found  herself  so  near  to  Rome.  A  complete  reunion, 
however,  was  not  to  be  accomplished.  But  good  seed 
had  been  sown.  Henceforth,  thanks  to  the  fame  of 
the  new  converts,  English  Catholics  were  to  count  in 
the  public  life  of  the  country;  and  this  result,  from 
the  purely  human  point  of  view,  was  chiefly  due  to 
Wiseman. 

For  a  new  situation,  new  institutions  were  neces- 
sary. Then  it  was  that  Pius  IX  conceived  the  proj- 
ect of  reestablishing,  not  the  ancient  hierarchy  which 
existed  before  the  Reformation,  but  a  new  territorial 
jurisdiction  whose  sees  should  not  be  exactly  the  same 

207 


THE  VATICAN 

O'Connell,  Newman,  Vaughan  and  Wiseman,  and 
especially  the  last  of  the  four.  The  life  of  this 
great  cardinal,  which  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Wilfrid 
Ward,  son  of  the  celebrated  convert,  is  really  the  his- 
tory of  the  awakening  of  Catholicism  in  England, 
that  great  movement  to  which  he  gave  irresistible 
force. 

In  1840,  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  Wiseman  was 
appointed  titulary  Bishop  of  Melipotamus  and  coad- 
jutor of  Dr.  Walsh,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Midlands 
of  England.  He  left  Rome  after  a  residence  there  of 
twenty-two  years  to  take  up  his  apostolic  labors  in 
England.  His  chief  aim  consisted  in  creating  in  the 
Anglican  Church  a  state  of  mind  favorable  to  Rome, 
and  with  this  end  in  view,  he  held  aloof  from  all  irri- 
tating polemics  and  even  praised  the  generous  efforts 
of  the  High  Church  party  to  give  a  Roman  Catholic 
stamp  to  Anglicanism  and  thus  to  bring  about  a  re- 
union of  the  two  faiths. 

In  a  memorable  letter  addressed  in  1841  to  Lord 
Shrewsbury,  Wiseman  said: 

"Another  prayer  for  *the  unity  of  the  sacred  Church'  has 
been  printed  at  Lichfield  in  Latin  and  English  by  Father 
Wackerboth,  A  fine  letter  written  by  a  young  member  of 
the  University  of  Oxford,  which  appeared  some  time  ago  in 
the  Univers,  declares  in  the  name  of  several  others,  that  this 
same  ardent  desire  is  the  object  of  prayers  and  fasts  during 
the  most  solemn  period  of  the  year.  Such  are  some  of  the 
public  manifestations  of  the  sincere  desire  on  the  part  of  in- 
fluential men  in  the  English  Church  to  bring  about  unity.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  ask  you  whether  you  think  one  should 

206 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

respond  thereto  by  other  than  sentiments  of  sympathy  and 
kindness  and  in  another  manner  than  by  the  assurance  of  our 
cordial  cooperation.  Should  one  remain  indifferent  when  such 
feelings  are  expressed  around  us?  On  the  contrary,  we 
should  extend  a  kindly  hand  to  those  who  are  in  trouble  and 
encourage  them." 

This  sympathetic  attitude  was  soon  destined  to  pro- 
duce fruit.  Wiseman  early  entered  into  correspond- 
ence with  the  chief  leaders  of  the  movement  at  the 
powerful  University  of  Oxford.  What  followed  is 
well  known.  In  1845,  Newman,  Ward,  Dalgairns, 
and  Christie  left  the  Anglican  Church  and  carried 
with  them  into  Catholicism  the  elite  of  the  Oxford 
movement.  It  was  then  perceived  that  there  was  a 
definite  change  in  the  religious  life  of  the  country. 
All  eyes  were  now  turned  towards  the  Catholic 
Church.  To  those  who  had  not  followed  the  Oxford 
controversy,  the  news  caused  a  veritable  stupor.  It 
was  the  first  time  since  the  Stuarts  that  England 
found  herself  so  near  to  Rome.  A  complete  reunion, 
however,  was  not  to  be  accomplished.  But  good  seed 
had  been  sown.  Henceforth,  thanks  to  the  fame  of 
the  new  converts,  English  Catholics  were  to  count  in 
the  public  life  of  the  country;  and  this  result,  from 
the  purely  human  point  of  view,  was  chiefly  due  to 
Wiseman. 

For  a  new  situation,  new  institutions  were  neces- 
sary. Then  it  was  that  Pius  IX  conceived  the  proj- 
ect of  reestablishing,  not  the  ancient  hierarchy  which 
existed  before  the  Reformation,  but  a  new  territorial 
jurisdiction  whose  sees  should  not  be  exactly  the  same 

207 


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geographically  as  those  of  the  Anglican  bishops. 
The  Pontifical  bull  proclaiming  the  erection  of  the 
new  hierarchy  appeared  on  September  12,  1850,  ac- 
companied by  a  pastoral  letter  from  Wiseman,  who 
had  just  been  created  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  West- 
minster. The  English  government  was  prepared  for 
this  action,  but  not  the  English  public.  It  created 
great  agitation  in  Protestant  circles.  Catholic 
priests  were  insulted  in  the  streets.  The  Pope  was 
burned  in  effigy  in  all  the  large  cities  of  the  kingdom 
and  the  most  influential  newspapers,  with  the  Times 
at  their  head,  echoed  the  popular  fury.  The  Prime 
Minister,  Lord  John  Russell,  who  at  first  showed 
himself  favorable  to  the  reestablishment  of  the  hier- 
archy, suddenly  changed  his  position  and  sent  a 
famous  letter  to  the  Anglican  Bishop  of  Durham  in 
which  he  denounced  not  only  Roman  Catholicism  but 
the  clergymen  of  the  High  Church  "who  were  con- 
spiring with  Rome"  by  adopting  certain  Catholic 
doctrines  and  practices.  At  the  Lord  Mayor's  ban- 
quet, the  Lord  Chancellor  was  still  more  violent  in 
his  speech,  and  the  excitement  reached  such  a  point 
that  when  the  cardinal  arrived  in  England,  stones 
were  thrown  at  his  carriage  and  his  friends  feared 
for  his  life. 

Wiseman  grasped  the  dangers  of  the  situation. 
Instead  of  complaining  to  the  head  of  the  ministry 
about  an  agitation  for  which  the  government  was 
partly  responsible,  he  resolved  to  make  a  bold  move 
and  address  himself  directly  to  the  English  people. 
This  was  the  first  time  since  the  Reformation  that  a 

208 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

Catholic  prelate  thus  made  a  direct  appeal  to  public 
opinion.  This  brave  attitude  won  over  to  the  cause 
of  tolerance  all  that  was  young  and  generous  in  Eng- 
land, and  while  the  old  Whig  Party  passed  a  Draco- 
nian law  against  the  holders  of  ecclesiastical  ter- 
ritorial titles  not  conferred  by  the  Crown,  that  is, 
against  the  Catholic  clergy,  the  cause  of  liberty  was 
eloquently  defended  by  two  young  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  who  were  destined  to  become 
great  statesmen — Gladstone  and  Disraeli. 

Although  this  law  was  voted  by  both  houses  of  Par- 
liament, it  remained  a  dead  letter.  But,  although 
Catholics  escaped  this  material  persecution,  they  were 
for  a  long  time  the  victims  of  ostracism  on  the  part 
of  that  power  which  is  always  very  powerful  and 
often  very  tyrannical,  known  as  "English  Society." 
In  a  country  where  the  aristocracy  has  been  able  to 
preserve  intact  all  its  influence  and  privileges,  the 
drawing-room  holds  a  considerable  place  in  national 
life.  After  the  passage  of  the  Emancipation  Bills, 
there  seemed  to  be  for  a  moment  a  relaxation  of  this 
spirit  of  condemnation  and  Catholics  were  seen  in 
some  of  the  most  exclusive  houses  of  London.  But 
after  the  events  of  1850,  English  cant  got  the  upper 
hand  again  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  Catholics, 
some  of  whom  were  members  of  the  oldest  aristocratic 
families  of  England,  were  shut  out  from  the  best 
society. 

Wiseman,  as  was  later  the  case  with  Manning  and 
later  still  with  Vaughan,  clearly  understood  that, 
while  in  Ireland  the  Catholic  clergy  should  preserve 

209 


THE  VATICAN 

its  more  popular  character,  in  England  it  must  above 
all  things  seek  social  standing;  for  if  it  would  reach 
the  people,  it  must  have  prestige,  which  could  be  ob- 
tained only  through  the  aristocracy.  This  conquest 
of  the  English  drawing-room,  nearly  complete  today, 
was  the  slow  fruit  of  partial  victories.  The  private 
letters  of  Wiseman  show  his  vigilance  in  matters  so- 
cial; how  he  seized  the  slightest  chance  to  penetrate 
into  "society,"  and  how,  once  there,  he  quickly  became 
a  past  master  in  the  ways  of  the  polite  world.  He 
conversed  with  the  same  ease  and  authority  on  ques- 
tions of  politics,  business,  art,  letters  and  history. 
No  subject  was  foreign  to  him.  He  preferred  to 
frequent  learned  circles  and  everywhere  the  supe- 
riority of  his  mind  was  recognized.  He  has  some- 
times been  criticised  by  English  Puritanism  as  being 
rather  too  ostentatious.  But  the  truth  is  that  he  was 
far  removed  from  that  "high  and  mighty"  type  so 
often  characteristic  of  the  Anglican  prelates.  If  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  appear  in  the  London  streets  in 
a  gala  coach  and  receive  insults  and  stones  in  conse- 
quence; if  he  dispensed  the  very  largest  hospitality 
at  York  Place,  all  this  sumptuousness  was  practiced 
with  a  purpose;  it  made  easier  his  relations  with  the 
high  cosmopolitan  society  of  the  metropolis.  In  this 
way,  to  cite  but  one  example  from  many,  he  laid  the 
foundation  for  a  lasting  friendship  with  the  future 
Emperor  Napoleon  III. 

In  a  word,  Wiseman  had  traits  which  were  peculiar 
to  him,  reminding  one  of  those  great  prelates  of  the 
ante-Reformation  period,  and  though  it  is  true  that 

210 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

he  sometimes  caused  an  irritation  in  Protestant  circles 
at  a  time  when  Catholics  were  scarcely  tolerated  in 
England  and  the  Church  had  only  just  escaped  from 
a  period  of  persecution,  still,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
his  personality  was  very  attractive  and  his  conduct 
very  politic.  In  fact,  events  more  than  once  proved 
that  his  attitude  was  the  right  one.  On  the  frequent 
occasions  when  it  was  necessary  for  English  society 
to  interest  itself  in  Catholic  affairs,  Wiseman  showed 
himself  an  admirable  mediator  amid  the  anger  and 
hatred  momentarily  awakened  thereby.  He  was  not 
frightened  by  the  most  violent  opposition.  In  the  be- 
ginning, he  forced  himself  on  the  attention  of  his 
fellow-countrymen,  then  won  their  respect  and  ended 
by  gaining  their  affection.  So  when  he  died  in  1865, 
an  enormous  concourse  of  people  followed  his  coffin 
to  the  grave,  the  London  lower  classes  rubbing  shoul- 
ders with  the  members  of  the  aristocracy  and  the  rep- 
resentatives of  foreign  sovereigns.  The  Times  itself 
admitted  that  such  a  funeral  had  not  been  seen  in 
London  since  that  of  the  victor  of  Waterloo. 

The  part  which  Wiseman  played  in  interior  Church 
affairs  was  not  less  remarkable  than  that  which  he 
took  in  external  matters.  In  the  first  place,  he  found 
it  no  easy  task  to  establish  concord  between  the  faith- 
ful who  were  born  Catholics  and  those  who  were  re- 
cently converted  to  the  faith.  The  former  were  too 
apt  to  mistrust  the  latter,  not  believing  their  abju- 
ration perfectly  sincere  and  considering  them  too  bold 
in  their  demands.  The  latter,  on  their  side,  found  the 
born  Catholics  too  apathetic  and  lacking  in  zeal,  de- 

211 


THE  VATICAN 

claring  that  they  had  got  so  habituated  to  servitude 
during  the  period  of  persecution,  that  they  did  not 
care  to  be  released.  After  succeeding  in  calming 
down  these  animosities,  the  Cardinal  had  to  intervene 
in  the  controversy  which  soon  sprang  up  between 
Ultramontanism  and  the  Liberal  Catholics.  By  his 
tact  and  his  ability,  he  prevented  a  schism,  which,  in 
the  critical  situation  in  which  the  Church  then  was  in 
England,  would  have  been  very  prejudicial  to  the 
future  development  of  Catholicism  in  the  United 
Kingdom. 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  said  that  if  Wiseman's  work  is 
to  be  judged  by  results,  it  appears  almost  superhuman. 
In  fact,  he  was  more  than  a  great  bishop,  a  great 
thinker,  a  great  scholar.  He  was  indeed  the  elect  of 
God  Himself.  It  has  been  truly  said  by  the  Abbe 
d'Egremont  in  his  "Religious  Annual"  for  1898,  that 
if  Newman  was  the  veritable  leader  of  the  religious 
revolution  which  transformed  England  towards  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  Wiseman  played  the  not 
less  difficult  role  and  not  less  glorious  one  of  having 
"organized  victory." 

What  progress  has  been  made  since  those  great 
days  of  heroic  struggle !  Now,  not  only  do  Catholics 
become  more  and  more  numerous  in  England,  but, 
far  from  being  persecuted,  they  are  often  treated  in 
a  most  sympathetic  manner  by  public  opinion.  This 
was  plainly  visible  during  the  Eucharistic  Congress 
held  in  London  in  1908,  presided  over  by  His  Emmi- 
nence,  Cardinal  Vincent  Vannutelli,  the  Special 
Envoy  of  the  Holy  Father.  Catholic  demonstrations 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

of  such  a  character  were  never  seen  before  in  the 
streets  of  the  capital.  A  procession  of  more  than  a 
hundred  thousand  persons  marched  calmly  and  in  the 
greatest  order  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  concourse  of  re- 
spectful and  pleased  spectators.  It  is  true  that  the 
Prime  Minister,  Mr.  Asquith,  would  not  permit  the 
carrying  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  in  the  procession, 
but  the  benediction  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  was  given 
to  the  people,  massed  on  the  square  and  in  the  streets, 
from  the  top  of  the  steps  of  the  cathedral.  This  pro- 
hibition drew  the  attention  of  English  Catholics  to 
their  civil  and  political  disabilities  and  decided  them 
to  endeavor  as  never  before  to  remove  such  unjust 
discriminations.  Will  they  succeed  in  this  effort? 
For  the  present,  the  question  seems  doubtful.  As 
the  government  did  not  think  it  politic  to  take  the 
initiative  in  the  proposed  reform,  a  private  member 
of  the  House,  Mr.  Luddon,  and  on  his  death,  Mr. 
William  Redmond,  undertook  the  task.  But,  as  is 
generally  known,  it  is  very  difficult  to  have  a  private 
bill  placed  on  the  English  statute  book.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1909,  the  first  reading  of  the  bill  was  carried, 
which,  however,  is  little  more  than  a  form  of  polite- 
ness, which  means  that  the  bill  will  be  printed  and 
distributed  to  the  members.  When  the  second  read- 
ing is  reached,  the  real  debate  will  begin. 

This  bill  contains  four  articles,  which  are  as  follows : 

1.  Henceforth,  Catholics  may  fill  two  posts,  which 

the  Act  of  Emancipation  of  1827  withheld  from  them, 

viz.,  the  Lord  Chancellorship  of  England,  and  the 

Lord  Lieutenancy  of  Ireland. 

213 


THE  VATICAN 

2.  The  religious   orders   established  in   England, 
which  now  have  but  a  precarious  existence,  will  be 
given  a  legal  status  and  will  be  authorized  to  hold 
property. 

3.  The  King,  on  the  day  of  his  coronation,  will  no 
longer  repudiate,  as  "blasphemy  and  idolatry,"  tran- 
substantiation  and  the  worship  of  saints ;  he  will  swear 
simply  to  maintain  Protestantism. 

This  bill  certainly  meets  with  the  approval  of  the 
average  English  opinion.  The  Anglican  Church, 
which,  taken  as  a  whole,  leans  towards  Rome,  ap- 
proves it.  But  the  Nonconformists  respond  thereto 
with  fresh  manifestations  of  their  old  anti-Papist 
prejudices,  while  the  ministry,  forced  to  deal  with 
the  Irish  Catholics,  finds  itself  in  a  difficult  position. 
The  members  of  the  cabinet  are  divided  on  the  ques- 
tion. Mr.  Lloyd-George,  under  a  legal  exterior,  is 
a  Methodist  at  heart,  while  Mr.  Birrell  is  a  Baptist, 
though  Lord  Morley,  whose  daughter  is  a  nun,  leans 
more  and  more  towards  Rome.  Hence  it  is  that  on 
this  question,  the  Cabinet  cannot  present  a  united 
front  and  leaves  its  members  free  to  take  what  posi- 
tion they  like.  Mr.  Asquith,  speaking  for  himself, 
has  come  out  in  favor  of  the  bill.  He  squarely  ac- 
cepts the  idea  of  throwing  open  to  Catholics  the  posts 
of  Lord  Chancellor  and  the  Lord  Lieutenancy;  in 
fact,  he  advocated  this  measure  as  early  as  1890,  along 
with  Gladstone,  Sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannermann 
and  Lord  Morley.  Even  now  a  Catholic  could  be 
Prime  Minister,  and  so  dispose  of  all  the  benefices  of 
the  Anglican  Church;  consequently  no  justification  of 

214 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

the  proposed  measure  is  really  necessary.  The  decla- 
ration of  Mr.  Asquith  has  done  much  to  break  the 
force  of  the  Protestant  assault,  led  by  the  Manchester 
Unionist,  Mr.  M'Arthur.  It  is  in  vain  that  he  dwells 
on  the  tyranny  of  principles  and  the  crimes  of  the 
Jesuits;  these  phantoms  of  the  past  only  call  forth 
smiles. 

Lord  Edmund  Talbot,  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk, the  Nationalist  Healy,  the  witty  Mr.  Belloc,  the 
most  French  of  the  members  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons— his  father  was  a  Frenchman  and  he  has  served 
in  a  French  artillery  regiment — support  the  other  side 
of  the  question.  By  a  vote  of  133  to  123,  the  House 
of  Commons  decided  to  consider  the  articles  of  the  bill 
in  full  session  and  not  to  refer  the  bill  to  a  small  com- 
mittee, which  decides  on  the  third  and  final  reading 
of  bills  emanating  from  private  members.  In  reality 
this  decision  endangered  the  existence  of  the  bill,  and 
if  the  government  does  not  give  it  a  place  in  its  pro- 
gramme, does  not,  so  to  speak,  adopt  it,  it  dies  of  itself 
and  all  has  to  be  begun  over  again.  But  the  firm 
attitude  of  Mr.  Asquith  gives  ground  for  hope  of  the 
final  success  of  the  measure. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  situation  in  Great  Britain,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  Catholic  religion  there  is  in  a 
prosperous  state  which  the  future  will  render  more 
and  more  brilliant. 

ITALY 

Is  what  has  just  been  said  of  England,  true  also 
of  Italy?     Yes,  in  so  far  as  the  people  are  concerned, 
who  are  so  strong  in  their  attachment  to  the  faith 
16  215 


THE  VATICAN 

and  in  their  fidelity  to  the  Pope.  But  what  dark 
clouds  are  elsewhere  on  the  Italian  horizon! 

The  capital  question  which  has  been  weighing  on 
the  destiny  of  the  Italian  nation  for  the  past  two  score 
years  is  that  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  Popes.  It 
harasses  the  minds  of  the  people  and  will  disturb  the 
unity  of  the  nation,  so  dear  to  all  Italian  hearts,  as 
long  as  it  is  not  definitely  settled.  Many  amateur 
diplomats,  rendered  all  the  bolder  by  the  fact  that 
they  represented  only  themselves,  have  tried  to  find  a 
solution  of  the  problem  and  have  presented  numerous 
remedies,  some  of  which  were  most  ingenious,  but 
none  of  which  has  contributed  an  iota  towards  the 
accomplishment  of  the  object  in  view. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  Catholics,  not  only  of  Italy  but 
of  the  whole  world,  some  very  clear  principles  and 
some  indubitable  declarations  spring  from  these  dis- 
cussions and  dominate  the  conflict.  In  the  first  place, 
the  Vatican  and  the  whole  Catholic  world  hold  that  it 
rests  with  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  alone  to  come  to  a 
decision  in  so  grave  an  affair  concerning  his  own  inde- 
pendence and  that  of  the  Church  itself.  Secondly, 
under  no  circumstances  can  this  independence  of  the 
Pope  in  the  government  of  the  Christian  world  be 
compromised  in  any  way  or  the  exercise  of  his  rights 
curtailed.  Thirdly,  the  265,000,000,  more  or  less, 
of  Catholics  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
cannot  detach  themselves  from  this  question  and  for- 
get that  Rome  is  their  religious  center,  where  resides 
the  living  and  respected  authority  who  directs  their 
conscience,  where,  also,  are  found,  at  the  Vatican,  the 

216 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

precious  archives  of  Catholicism  and,  in  the  churches 
and  catacombs,  those  thousands  of  testimonials  of 
their  history  and  their  faith,  called  the  relics  of  mar- 
tyrs and  saints. 

Furthermore,  it  is  known  by  everyone  that  the 
Sovereign  Pontiffs,  Pius  IX,  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X, 
have  protested  most  energetically  against  the  spoli- 
ation of  the  States  of  the  Church ;  they  have  prohibited 
all  faithful  Italian  Catholics  from  voting  or  being  can- 
didates for  the  legislative  elections,  and  this  general 
prohibition  has  never  been  withdrawn,  though  reports 
to  the  contrary  are  circulated  from  time  to  time;  and 
they  ignore  the  Italian  Law  of  Guarantees  passed  in 
the  Pope's  favor  and  making  him,  as  it  were,  an 
honorary  sovereign. 

Such  are  the  unquestioned  elements  of  the  problem ; 
and  every  Italian  who  loves  his  great  and  beautiful 
land  must  desire  in  his  heart  a  solution  which  would 
satisfy  all  parties,  the  Vatican  as  well  as  the  state. 
If  this  could  be  accomplished,  it  would  greatly  aug- 
ment the  esteem  and  sympathy  for  Italy  throughout 
the  civilized  world. 

Besides  the  question  of  temporal  power,  other 
serious  difficulties  for  the  Church  have  been  created 
by  the  Italian  government.  During  the  whole  Crispi 
ministry,  the  Papacy  and  religion  were  forced  to  sub- 
mit to  a  most  shameful  administrative  persecution, 
which  took  the  form  of  endless  annoyances  and  humili- 
ations of  the  Holy  See.  This  policy  was  pushed  so 
far  that  on  several  occasions  Leo  XIII  publicly  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  leaving  Rome,  which  created 

217 


THE  VATICAN 

considerable  excitement  throughout  the  world,  and  the 
newspapers  of  all  nations  busied  themselves  in  examin- 
ing the  question  where  the  Holy  Father  could  take 
refuge  and  live  in  liberty  and  peace.  In  France, 
Avignon  and  Pau  were  mentioned,  and  the  restoration 
of  their  famous  castles  was  considered  in  this  connec- 
tion, it  being  pointed  out  that  this  would  not  be  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Vatican  that  the  Papacy 
had  resided  in  the  former  city.  Monaco  and  Malta 
were  also  mentioned,  and  the  hospitality  of  the  United 
States  was  considered. 

While  attacking  the  Holy  See,  the  Crispi  ministry 
also  showed  a  leaning  towards  the  most  advanced  and 
questionable  socialistic  ideas,  especially  in  the  large 
Italian  cities,  a  senseless  policy  which  profoundly 
afflicted  and  disquieted  the  very  large  class  of  upright 
and  thoughtful  citizens.  They  sowed  the  wind  and 
reaped  the  whirlwind.  This  Crispi  ministry  which 
was  so  harmful  to  Italy,  both  from  a  religious  and 
political  standpoint,  with  its  megalomaniac  ideas — 
from  a  military  standpoint,  with  its  Abyssinian  policy, 
and  from  an  economic  standpoint,  especially  at  Rome, 
by  an  exaggerated  development  of  the  city — finally 
gave  way  to  the  Rudini  cabinet,  which  began  at  first 
in  an  atmosphere  of  peace,  during  which  relative  calm 
a  great  awakening  of  Catholic  spirit  showed  itself 
throughout  the  Peninsula.  The  religious  associations 
and  charitable  organizations  renewed  their  old  activ- 
ity, especially  in  social  matters  and  in  public  mani- 
festations of  faith  and  piety  in  which  the  popular 
classes  indulged.  It  was  a  new  proof  of  the  healthy 

218 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

state  of  the  masses  when  an  appeal  was  made  to  that 
religious  sentiment  so  profoundly  rooted  in  the  Ital- 
ian soul  and  a  fresh  evidence  of  the  indefectible  vitality 
of  the  Catholic  spirit  which,  in  order  to  produce  its 
best  effects,  needs  simply  to  have  its  rights  respected 
if  not  protected.  And  the  government  found  its  own 
policies  aided  thereby.  This  fine  Catholic  movement 
proved  an  indirect  auxiliary  in  the  municipal  elec- 
tions, even  in  the  large  cities,  by  banishing  from  the 
polls  all  subversive  ideas.  But,  unfortunately,  in 
order  to  strengthen  its  position  in  the  Parliament,  the 
Rudini  cabinet  sought  the  support  of  the  Radicals, 
who  finally  dominated  it,  especially  after  the  death  of 
the  moderate  Minister  of  Justice,  Signer  Corta. 
Zanardelli,  who  replaced  him  at  the  end  of  1897,  was 
the  leader  of  the  sectaries  and  the  regular  protector 
of  Radicalism.  When  the  cabinet  entered  upon  this 
new  line  of  policy,  a  series  of  famous  circulars  were 
issued,  one  after  another,  aimed  at  the  Catholic  asso- 
ciations, which  stirred  up  much  indignation  and  such 
a  spirit  of  protest  that  they  had  no  effect  for  some 
time.  But  the  fury  of  the  anti-Catholics  continued, 
and  they  went  so  far  as  to  declare  the  associations  dis- 
turbers of  the  peace  and  even  a  danger  to  the  state. 
But  it  was  soon  seen  that  the  danger  was  not  in  this 
direction.  The  Italian  government  was  suddenly 
awakened  as  if  from  a  dream  by  a  formidable  ex- 
plosion of  socialistic  and  anarchist  disorder  in  both 
northern  and  central  Italy,  with  Milan  as  the  center. 

The  Vatican  view  of  this  outbreak  was  well  summed 
up  in  this  passage  of  a  letter  addressed  to  Cardinal 

219 


THE  VATICAN 

Ferrari,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  by  Leo  XIII:  "The 
evil  grain  sown  for  a  long  time  and  with  impunity 
throughout  the  Peninsula,  perverting  popular  ideas, 
corrupting  morals  and  prejudicing  the  public  mind 
against  religion,  could  not  but  produce  bitter  fruit." 

The  governmental  repression  was  worse  than  the 
popular  revolt.  More  than  60,000  troops  were  quickly 
called  to  arms;  martial  law  was  declared  in  entire 
provinces ;  regular  battles  were  fought.  This  was  the 
case  at  Milan,  where  not  only  rifles,  but  even  cannon, 
were  used.  Such,  in  a  word,  is  the  history  of  this  ter- 
rible incident,  so  full  of  warning  to  the  enemies  of  re- 
ligion and  good  government.  Its  immediate  effect 
was  to  kill  the  Rudini  cabinet,  discredited  by  the  ex- 
cesses of  Signor  Zanardelli  against  the  Catholics, 
which  was  succeeded  by  the  cabinet  of  General  Pel- 
loux.  But  the  new  Prime  Minister's  past  political 
career  and  the  colleagues  whom  he  called  into  his  cabi- 
net connected  him  so  closely  with  the  supporters  of 
Zanardelli  and  Crispi  that  the  persecution  continued, 
and  the  sectaries,  who  were  still  very  powerful,  per- 
sisted in  publicly  accusing  Catholics  as  agitators  and 
as  authors  of  the  troubles  which  had  just  covered  Italy 
with  blood.  Leo  XIII  repelled  these  calumnies  in 
an  encyclical  dated  August  5,  1898,  and  addressed  to 
the  bishops,  clergy  and  people  of  Italy,  a  remarkable 
document,  extracts  from  which  are  given  below. 

After  recalling  the  origin  of  the  troubles,  His  Holi- 
ness went  on  to  say: 

"We  think,  however,  that  in  seeking  the  initial  causes  of 
this  riot  and  fraternal  conflict,  those  who  have  the  direction 

220 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

of  public  affairs  will  admit  that  these  causes  spring  from  the 
baneful  but  natural  seed  which  has  been  so  plentifully  and  for 
such  a  long  time  sown  broadcast  throughout  the  Peninsula. 
We  believe  that,  perceiving  the  effect  and  the  cause,  and 
profiting  by  the  terrible  lesson  which  they  have  just  received, 
our  public  men  will  return  to  the  Christian  rules  of  social 
organization  by  whose  aid  nations  gain  new  strength  lest 
they  perish  from  off  the  face  of  the  earth;  and  that,  con- 
sequently, our  ruling  class  will  honor  the  principles  of 
j  ustice,  probity  and  religion,  whence  chiefly  come  the  material 
well-being  of  a  people.  We  should  imagine  that  if  they 
wished  to  discover  the  real  authors  and  the  accomplices  of 
these  up-risings,  they  would  bethink  themselves  to  look  for 
these  authors  and  these  accomplices  among  those  who  hold 
Catholic  teaching  in  aversion  and  who  excite  the  souls  of 
men  of  every  kind  of  covetousness  awakened  by  the  teachings 
of  scientific  and  political  naturalism  and  materialism, — among 
those,  in  a  word,  who  hide  their  culpable  intentions  in 
shadowy  sectarian  assemblies  where  are  sharpened  arms 
against  the  order  and  the  security  of  society.  In  fact  there 
are  in  the  enemy's  camp  elevated  and  impartial  minds  who 
understand  and  have  the  praise-worthy  courage  to  publicly 
proclaim  the  true  cause  of  these  lamentable  disorders. 

"But  great  was  our  surprise  and  our  pain,  when  we  learned 
that,  under  an  absurd  pretext,  badly  hidden  by  artifice,  public 
opinion  was  purposely  misled  into  believing  that  Catholics — 
a  foolish  accusation — were  the  disturbers  of  order,  and  on 
them  was  laid  the  blame  and  harm  of  the  seditious  movements 
of  which  some  parts  of  Italy  were  the  theater.  And  our  pain 
was  increased  when  these  calumnies  were  followed  up  by  arbi- 
trary and  violent  acts.  Some  of  the  best  known  and  ablest 
Catholic  journals  were  suspended  or  suppressed;  diocesan 
and  parochial  committees  proscribed;  Catholic  congresses 

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THE  VATICAN 

dispersed;  some  of  our  institutions  rendered  powerless  and 
others,  even  those  among  these  whose  sole  aim  is  the  develop- 
ment of  charitable  ob j  ects  among  the  faithful  or  the  carrying 
out  of  public  or  private  acts  of  benevolence,  threatened  with 
a  like  treatment.  A  very  large  number  of  inoffensive  and 
meritorious  societies  were  dissolved  and  so  the  patient,  chari- 
table and  modest  labor  of  many  long  years  and  of  many  noble 
minds  and  generous  hearts  was  destroyed  in  a  few  hours  of 
tempest. 

"By  having  recourse  to  these  base  and  intemperate  meas- 
ures, the  authorities,  in  the  first  place,  placed  themselves  in 
contradiction  with  their  previous  assertions ;  for,  during  a 
long  period,  they  had  been  saying  that  the  people  of  Italy 
were  at  one  with  them  in  their  revolutionary  course  and  in 
their  hostility  to  the  Papacy.  But  now,  on  the  contrary, 
they  suddenly  had  to  admit  that  this  was  not  true,  by  having 
recourse  to  exceptional  means  to  smother  numerous  associa- 
tions scattered  all  over  Italy,  whose  only  crime  was  attachment 
to  the  Church  and  to  the  cause  of  the  Holy  See. 

"In  the  second  place,  these  measures  wronged  above  all  the 
principles  of  justice  and  the  smooth  and  natural  working  of 
existing  laws,  in  virtue  of  which  Catholics,  as  well  as  all  other 
Italian  citizens,  are  permitted  freely  to  unite  their  common 
efforts  to  promote  the  moral  and  mental  welfare  of  those 
around  them  and  to  enjoy  the  practices  of  piety  and  religion. 
It  was,  therefore,  an  arbitrary  act  thus  to  dissolve  many 
Catholic  charitable  societies  which  in  other  lands  enjoy  a 
peaceful  and  respected  existence,  and  all  this  without  there 
being  any  proof  of  culpability,  without  any  preliminary  in- 
quiry, without  any  document  in  hand  showing  that  they  had 
participated  in  the  unexpected  disorders. 

"Furthermore,  this  action  was  a  special  offense  towards 
us,  who  had  organized  and  blessed  these  useful  and  pacific 

222 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

associations,  and  towards  you,  my  Venerable  Brothers,  who 
had  carefully  watched  over  their  development  and  manage- 
ment. Our  protection  and  your  vigilance  should  have  ren- 
dered them  still  more  worthy  of  respect  and  shielded  them 
from  all  suspicion. 

"Nor  can  we  pass  over  in  silence  the  perniciousness  of  such 
measures  for  the  interests  of  the  people,  for  social  conserva- 
tion and  for  the  real  good  of  Italy.  The  suppression  of  these 
societies  increased  the  moral  and  material  misery  of  the  people 
whom  they  strove  to  elevate  by  all  possible  means;  it  took 
away  from  society  a  powerfully  conservative  force,  for  their 
organization  and  the  diffusion  of  their  principles  were  a  dyke 
against  the  subversive  theories  of  socialism  and  anarchy ;  and, 
finally,  it  made  still  more  bitter  the  present  religious  differ- 
ences, which  all  men  who  are  free  from  sectarian  passion 
consider  as  extremely  harmful  to  Italy,  whose  force,  unity 
and  harmony  are  lowered  thereby. 

"We  call  the  attention,  to  this  state  of  things,  of  our  sons 
of  Italy  and  those  of  other  nations,  to  both  of  whom  we  de- 
clare, however,  that  though  our  sorrow  is  great,  not  less  great 
is  our  courage,  not  less  firm  our  confidence  in  that  Providence 
who  governs  the  world,  and  who  watches  constantly  and  with 
love  over  the  Church  which  is  identified  with  the  Papacy, 
according  to  the  beautiful  expression  of  St.  Ambrose:  Ubi 
Petrus,  ibi  Ecclesia.  Both  are  divine  institutions  that  have 
survived  every  outrage,  every  attack,  and,  without  ever  being 
shaken,  have  seen  the  centuries  pass  and  have  drawn  from 
misfortune  itself  increased  force,  energy  and  constancy." 

It  was  not  in  exaggerated  terms  that  the  Holy 
Father  denounced  these  sectarian  persecutions  and 
called  attention  to  the  large  number  of  their  victims. 
The  statistics  of  the  Vatican,  which  if  not  absolutely 

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THE  VATICAN 

complete  come  as  near  as  possible  to  the  truth,  prove 
that,  within  the  short  space  of  one  and  a  half  months, 
that  is,  from  the  beginning  of  May  until  the  middle  of 
June,  1898,  there  were  blotted  out  not  less  than  four 
Catholic  "Regional  Committees,"  70  Diocesan  Com- 
mittees, 2,600  Parish  Committees,  600  "Sections,"  20 
Catholic  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  5  Uni- 
versity Clubs,  300  general  religious  associations,  and 
numerous  rural  banks,  friendly  societies,  et  cetera, 
whose  purely  economic  character  should  have  pro- 
tected them  from  violence;  but  they  were  dissolved 
simply  because  they  were  Catholic.  In  a  word,  nearly 
4,000  Catholic  associations  of  one  kind  or  another  were 
thus  summarily  dispersed ;  not  one  of  them  in  a  regu- 
lar legal  manner,  nor  was  a  single  one  of  them  found 
guilty  of  the  anti-state  machinations,  which  were 
charged  as  a  whole  against  all  these  organizations. 
The  aim  of  this  Draconian  measure  was  plain.  The 
government  wished  to  strike  a  blow  at  Catholic  in- 
fluence in  general  in  Italy  and  thus  reach  the  very 
head  of  the  Church  himself. 

Since  that  epoch,  death  has  sadly  afflicted  the 
Church  by  taking  away  Leo  XIII ;  and  the  state,  by 
the  assassination  of  King  Humbert  I.  In  a  general 
way,  the  struggle  between  the  sectaries  and  religion 
has  gone  steadily  on,  with  alternations,  however,  be- 
tween moments  of  calm  and  storm.  Even  at  the  mo- 
ment of  the  terrible  catastrophe  of  Messina  and 
Reggio  this  spirit  of  hatred  did  not  disappear.  The 
admirable  devotion  and  abnegation  of  the  Catholic 
clergy  was  scarcely  noticed  by  the  anti-clerical  press, 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

a  fact  which  the  Pope  plainly  stated  in  one  of  his 
encyclicals.  It  is  only  too  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  Church  has  many  difficulties  to  contend  with  in 
Italy,  and  everything,  unfortunately,  points  to  the 
conclusion  that  their  solution  will  not  be  effected  in  the 
near  future. 

SPAIN 

Another  classic  land  of  Catholicism,  Spain,  is  also 
very  keenly  attacked  by  the  free-thought  canker 
and  by  the  most  advanced  anti-Christian  political 
parties.  But  the  Court  and  the  lower  classes  are 
strongly  attached  to  religion,  while  the  bishops  enjoy 
greater  liberty  of  speech  in  Spain  than  is  generally  the 
case  elsewhere. 

Everybody  knows  the  unfortunate  events  which  de- 
prived Spain  of  her  two  fine  colonies  of  Cuba  and  the 
Philippines,  but  what  is  less  known,  and  what  was 
revealed  some  years  ago  by  a  spirited  polemic  be- 
tween the  Catholic  and  the  anti-Christian  press,  is  the 
part  which  the  secret  societies  played  in  the  insurrec- 
tion in  those  colonies.  The  Vatican  has  been  in- 
formed that  at  that  time  there  were  as  many  as  eighty 
masonic  lodges  at  Havana  alone,  while  it  is  a  historic 
fact  that  for  some  three  hundred  years,  the  monks, 
invested  with  true  administrative  powers,  gave  peace 
to  the  Philippines.  The  disorder  which  finally  over- 
turned Spanish  government  in  those  unhappy  islands 
was  due  to  masonic  intrigues. 

In  Cuba,  Freemasonry  was  introduced  from  Phila- 
delphia, and  close  relations  were  kept  up  between  the 
American  and  Cuban  lodges.  The  "Patriotic  Com- 

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THE  VATICAN 

mittees"  were  founded  by  the  masons  and  were  given 
attractive  names.  The  signal  for  an  outbreak  was 
always  given  by  these  organizations,  which  should 
have  been  suppressed  long  before,  in  accordance  with 
government  orders.  The  Spanish  bishops,  conse- 
quently, vigorously  opposed  these  associations,  and 
the  Bishop  of  Plasencia  went  so  far  as  to  blame  in 
a  public  letter,  published  on  February  20,  1898,  those 
ecclesiastics  who  in  Spain  itself  voted  for,  and  used 
their  influence  to  get  others  to  vote  for,  unworthy 
candidates  for  Parliament,  who  were  affiliated  with 
the  various  so-called  Liberal  Parties,  whose  pro- 
gramme meant  "the  destruction  of  national  unity." 

French  influence  is  naturally  strongly  felt  in  Spain. 
So  the  separation  of  Church  and  state  in  France  was 
sure  to  have  imitators  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pyre- 
nees. But  the  effort  will  probably  fail  in  Spain,  as 
the  agitators  have  with  them  neither  a  majority  in  the 
Cortes,  nor  public  opinion,  nor  the  Court. 

PORTUGAL 

The  religious  history  of  Portugal  has  been  most 
brilliant  and  glorious.  Its  universities  have  given  to 
the  Church  a  galaxy  of  learned  men  in  all  branches 
of  ecclesiastical  science,  and  its  sturdy  missionaries, 
following  in  the  wake  of  its  famous  navigators,  and 
conquerors,  were  among  the  first  to  carry  the  light 
of  the  Gospel  into  Africa,  India  and  Japan.  The 
religious  orders,  then  very  flourishing  in  Portugal, 
were  most  distinguished  in  this  pacific  crusade  and  in 
this  ardor  for  the  saving  of  souls. 

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POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

In  Portugal,  the  lower  classes,  especially  in  the 
northern  provinces,  are  profoundly  Catholic.  One 
or  two  examples  of  this  may  be  given  from  a  large 
number.  Thus,  it  was  by  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
mountains  of  Sameiro,  where  since  the  year  1854  the 
Immaculate  Conception  is  especially  honored,  that 
a  great  number  of  the  workmen  of  Oporto  and  Braga 
celebrated  Labor  Day  in  1899.  When  the  constitu- 
tional regime  was  established  in  Portugal,  it  was 
considered  best,  in  the  interest  of  honest  elections, 
to  have  the  voting  take  place  in  the  churches.  But, 
later,  so  much  irreverence  and  so  many  crimes  re- 
sulted, that  the  Catholic  Congress  of  Oporto  approved 
the  request  of  the  religious  papers  that  this  custom 
be  abandoned.  This  has  not  yet  been  done,  and  the 
fact  that  the  custom  was  ever  instituted  shows  the 
manner  in  which  Catholicism  has  penetrated  into  the 
heart  of  the  Portuguese  nation. 

But  today,  because  of  the  activity  of  the  masonic 
lodges  and  the  revolutionary  parties,  religion  has  lost 
much  of  its  old  influence  in  governmental  circles,  and 
that  terrible  crimes,  such  as  the  assassination  of  the 
King  and  the  Crown  Prince,  which  horrified  the 
world  a  few  years  ago,  could  take  place,  sadly  reflects 
the  new  state  of  mind  in  the  Portuguese  political 
world  of  today. 

The  decline  of  the  Catholic  spirit  in  Portugal  dates 
from  the  violent  persecution  of  the  religious  orders 
in  1834.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  pre- 
vious century  from  all  the  Portuguese  dominions, 
carried  out  by  the  Marquez  de  Pombal  in  1759,  had 

227 


THE  VATICAN 

already  done  much  harm  to  the  Portuguese  colonies 
and  to  the  Christians  of  India.  But  towards  the  end 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  relations  between  the 
ecclesiastical  and  the  civil  authorities  were,  happily, 
considerably  ameliorated  and  a  slow  but  perceptible 
progress  is  now  seen  in  all  the  various  kinds  of  Church 
work.  The  return  of  this  religious  spirit  began  about 
the  time  that  Father  Miel  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Mission  commenced  his  labors  at  Lisbon.  This 
excellent  priest,  who  was  accompanied  by  Sisters  of 
Charity  when  they  came  to  the  aid  of  the  yellow  fever 
victims  during  the  epidemic  at  Lisbon  in  1857,  laid 
the  foundation  in  Portugal  of  all  the  pious  and 
charitable  work  which  characterizes  the  Catholic 
spirit  of  this  century.  Since  then,  the  government 
has  permitted  religious  orders  to  reestablish  them- 
selves little  by  little  in  Portugal,  until  today  are 
to  be  found  there  three  colleges  of  the  Jesuits,  the 
Priests  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  of  the  Lazarists,  et 
cetera;  Franciscan,  Benedictine  and  Dominican  con- 
vents; ordinary  schools  and  industrial  schools  of  the 
Salesian  Fathers,  and  some  nunneries.  The  gov- 
ernment has  even  gone  further  in  its  reparative  policy. 
Wishing  to  make  amends  for  the  abolition  of  the  re- 
ligious orders  in  the  colonies,  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed, with  the  valiant  missionary,  Dom  Antonio 
Barrozo,  the  present  Bishop  of  Oporto,  at  its  head, 
to  study  the  most  practical  way  of  increasing  the 
missionary  seminaries.  From  the  suppression  of 
the  religious  orders  in  1834,  until  recent  years,  Portu- 
gal has  had  but  one  royal  missionary  seminary,  that 

228 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

at  Sarnache  do  Bom-Jardin,  for  the  training  of  mis- 
sionaries for  the  colonies  under  royal  patronage.  If 
it  had  not  been  for  the  very  important  services  of 
several  religious  orders  and  the  aid  officially  asked 
for  and  given  during  many  years,  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  in  the  Province  of  Angola  and  West 
Africa,  the  Portuguese  colonies  would,  today,  be 
quite  neglected  in  the  matter  of  religion. 

The  charity  work  carried  on  by  the  Church  grew 
in  a  remarkable  degree  and  the  immense  good  which 
it  accomplished  was  largely  due  to  the  example  set 
by  Queen  Marie  Amelie,  who  never  wearied  of  suc- 
coring the  poor  and  unfortunate.  At  Her  Majesty's 
suggestion  a  committee  was  formed  at  Lisbon  to 
gather  the  funds  necessary  to  found  hospitals  and 
asylums  for  consumptives,  and  the  Castle  of  Ontao, 
near  Lisbon,  which  then  belonged  to  the  Royal  family, 
was  generously  given  for  a  sanitarium  for  scrofulous 
children.  In  a  word,  though  the  sectarian  press  was 
indefatigable  in  its  attacks  on  religion  and  its  institu- 
tions, a  policy,  by  the  way,  which  sometimes  resulted 
disastrously  for  the  papers  (A  P atria  was  suppressed 
on  account  of  its  attacks  on  the  Franciscan  Hospital 
Sisters)  thanks  to  the  admirable  devotion  and  activity 
of  the  religious  press,  the  future  of  the  cause  in  Portu- 
gal was  very  bright. 

It  is  true  that  the  seminaries  and  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  clergy  were  not  all  that  could  be  desired.  But 
it  is  certain  that  the  zeal  of  the  bishops  would  eventu- 
ally have  overcome  these  difficulties  and  shortcom- 
ings; for  the  bishops  in  Portugal  held  a  strong 

009 


THE  VATICAN 

position.  They  were,  for  instance,  ex-officio  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Peers,  which  gave  them  a  real 
influence  in  governmental  affairs.  Then  again,  they 
came  together  annually  in  a  sort  of  national  council 
to  examine  into  the  state  of  the  Church  and  to  provide 
better  measures  for  its  defense  and  administration. 
In  order  to  improve  the  teaching  body  and  the  general 
education  in  their  seminaries,  several  of  the  bishops 
handed  all  these  matters  over  to  the  religious  orders 
and  the  Vatican  seconded  these  efforts  by  founding 
under  the  immediate  care  of  the  Holy  See  a  Pontifical 
Portuguese  Seminary.  This  institution  was  estab- 
lished in  1900  at  his  own  expense,  by  Leo  XIII,  who 
chose  as  its  superior,  Monsignor  Sinibaldi,  for- 
merly professor  of  scholastic  philosophy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Coimbra.  The  Pope  also  gave  instruc- 
tions that  all  the  Portuguese  dioceses  on  the  Conti- 
nent and  in  the  colonies  should  send  to  Rome  at  least 
two  of  their  members.  As  a  result  of  these  wide  meas- 
ures it  was  hoped  that  the  Church  would  flourish 
as  of  old  in  this  classic  land  of  Catholicism. 

But  an  unexpected  political  catastrophe  suddenly 
ruined  all  these  bright  hopes.  The  revolution  which 
drove  King  Manuel  from  the  country  was  also  the 
most  anti-Catholic  and  sectarian  uprising  that  has  per- 
haps ever  occurred.  The  whole  Portuguese  Church 
was  also  overturned.  The  bishops  were  driven  from 
their  sees  and  the  priests  from  their  parishes.  A  large 
number  of  nuns  and  Catholic  laymen  were  thrown 
into  prison.  All  relations  with  Rome  were  broken 
off  and  violent  persecution  ensued.  If  all  this  was 

230 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

most  disastrous  to  the  best  interests  of  the  Church, 
there  were,  at  the  same  time,  consolatory  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  calamity.  Faith  was 
awakened  in  the  people.  The  faithful  grouped  them- 
selves around  their  bishops,  listened  to  their  voices 
and  began  a  brave  fight  against  their  persecutors, 
who  were  surprised  and  disconcerted.  The  Holy 
Father  has  encouraged  and  blessed  the  episcopacy 
and  the  faithful  in  their  admirable  struggle,  which  he 
directs  with  as  much  firmness  as  prudence;  and  the 
bishops  of  several  Catholic  countries  have  sent  col- 
lective public  addresses,  full  of  sad  sympathy  and 
ardent  admiration,  to  their  harassed  colleagues  of 
Portugal.  In  the  meanwhile,  there  is  every  reason 
to  hope  that  calm  will  soon  follow  this  severe  storm 
and  that  the  Portuguese  Church  will  once  more  as- 
sume the  brilliant  position  which  it  has  always  held 
among  Catholic  nations. 

RUSSIA 

If,  from  the  old  Latin  countries  of  southern  Eu- 
rope, we  pass  to  the  north,  we  shall  find  there  that 
the  condition  of  the  Church,  after  having  been  rather 
critical,  is  now  relatively  good.  Until  recent  years, 
Catholicism  in  Russia  was  looked  upon  as  a  "foreign 
religion,"  and  only  in  Russian  Poland  was  to  be  found 
a  regular  Catholic  hierarchy  and  a  diocesan  organiza- 
tion. Russian  Catholics,  disseminating  throughout 
the  immense  Empire  of  the  Czar  even  to  the  shores 
of  Behring's  Strait,  were  all  attached  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  MohilefF,  which,  being  the  metropolitan 
16  231 


THE  VATICAN 

see,  was  the  head  of  the  largest  diocese  in  the  universe. 
But  today,  Russia  proper  has  six  sees,  viz.,  the  ancient 
one  of  Mohileif,  the  metropolitan,  and  five  suffra- 
gans. Polish  Russia  has  one  archbishopric,  Warsaw, 
and  six  suffragan  bishops.  The  illiberal  laws  which 
formerly  affected  Catholics  have  been  annulled,  and 
an  era  of  religious  liberty  is  finally  dawning  in  Holy 
Russia,  which  was  so  long  and  so  violently  opposed 
to  Catholicism  and  Rome.  The  Czar  now  keeps  up 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  Holy  See,  by  means 
of  an  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  a  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary, assisted  by  a  secretary  of  legation,  who 
reside  at  Rome. 

POLAND 

Poland  is  a  nation  which  is  united  as  regards 
Catholicism,  but  divided,  as  everybody  knows,  po- 
litically into  three  parts,  Russian,  Austrian  and  Prus- 
sian Poland.  Russian  Poland,  a  land  which  has  suf- 
fered greatly  from  religious  persecutions  in  the  past 
and  from  anarchical  disturbances  in  recent  years,  is 
now  entering  upon  an  era  of  peace.  The  heroic 
courage  of  the  faithful  finally  wearied  their  perse- 
cutors. Among  these  valiant  souls,  the  first  place 
must  be  given  to  the  Uniats,  Ruthenians  belonging 
to  the  United  Greek  Church,  Catholics,  consequently, 
and  for  this  called  Uniats.  The  Russians  of  the 
Orthodox  Greek  Church,  who  are  schismatics,  looked 
upon  these  Uniats  as  renegades  and,  on  account  of 
the  external  similarity  of  their  rites,  tried  to  separate 
them  from  Rome  and  incorporate  them  in  the  Ortho- 
dox .Greek  Church.  Persuasion,  in  the  first  place, 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

followed  by  force,  prison,  the  knout,  the  deportation 
of  their  bishops  and  priests,  and  the  exile,  en  masse, 
of  the  population  of  whole  regions, — nothing  was  left 
untried  to  attain  this  base  end.  But  all  was  in  vain. 
An  imposing  number  of  recalcitrants  still  refused  to 
participate  in  the  services  of  the  official  Orthodox 
faith,  which  brought  down  on  their  humble  heads  the 
severest  punishments.  But  still  they  would  not 
abandon  their  Church.  At  last,  forced  to  admit  that 
it  was  impossible  to  vanquish  the  opposition  of  this 
noble  people,  nearly  all  of  whom  were  peasants,  and 
also  influenced  by  the  public  reprobation  of  all  civi- 
lized Europe,  which  was  astonished  at  this  cruel 
treatment  of  loyal  subjects  of  the  Empire,  the 
Russian  government,  weary  of  the  hopeless  struggle, 
permitted  the  Uniats  to  practice  the  Latin  Rite,  thus 
ending  where  they  should  have  begun.  This  order 
was  given  in  the  ukase,  dated  July  14, 1898,  which  was 
spoken  of  in  this  wise  by  a  friend  of  the  Vatican: 

"It  is  quite  true  that  this  concession  is  not  so  complete  as 
one  would  like,  as  it  was  made  on  the  condition  that  the  Greek 
Rite  should  be  abandoned  because  of  its  resemblance  to  the 
Orthodox  Rite.  But  it  is  permitted  these  Polish  Catholics, 
as  they  belonged  to  the  United  Greek  Church,  to  profess 
Catholicism  henceforth  by  going  over  to  the  Latin  Rite.  In 
this  connection  some  official  formalities  had  to  be  fulfilled,  as, 
for  instance,  changing  the  entry  concerning  religion  on  the 
birth  registers,  where,  during  the  period  of  persecution,  the 
Uniats  were  inscribed  as  belonging  to  the  Orthodox  faith. 
It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  say,  as  has  been  said  in  some 
quarters,  that  these  form.ilities  could  be  carried  out  only 

23S 


THE  VATICAN 

after  the  direct  permission  of  the  Czar.  This  is  the  very 
point  of  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new  arrangement 
in  this  matter.  Under  the  old,  the  exception  in  favor  of  the 
Uniats  who  would  remain  Catholic  was  granted  very  rarely 
and  was  accorded  in  fact  by  the  Czar  in  each  particular  case, 
whereas,  today,  it  is  the  general  rule  that  all  Uniats,  pro- 
vided they  give  up  the  Greek  Rite,  may  demand  and  will  be 
granted  permission  to  profess  Catholicism,  if  the  above- 
mentioned  formalities  are  fulfilled,  without  asking  it  as  a 
special  favor  from  the  Czar." 

This  was  a  marked  victory  for  liberty  of  conscience. 

Piety  is  one  of  the  most  striking  traits  of  the  Polish 
character.  Even  in  the  midst  of  persecution,  and 
still  more  since  that  time,  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  which  calls  the  faithful  to  a  more  perfect 
Christianity,  has  wonderfully  developed  in  that 
country.  Whole  villages  strictly  obey  the  rules  of 
the  Seraphic  Brethren,  and  nowhere  else  is  Christian 
life  more  intense.  The  higher  classes  are  the  first 
to  set  the  example  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  the 
names  of  the  greatest  families  borne  by  simple  monks, 
as,  for  example,  Brother  Augustin  Czartoryski  of 
the  Salesians  and  Don  Bosco  and  Dom  Benedict 
Radziwill  of  the  Benedictine  Order. 

In  Austrian  Poland,  the  Church  enjoys  complete 
liberty  and  its  various  activities  flourish  unrestrained. 
The  city  of  Leopol,  or  Lemberg,  the  second  capital 
of  Austrian  Poland,  offers,  for  instance,  a  curious 
example  of  diversity  of  rites  in  unity  of  faith.  Thus, 
there  are  three  archbishoprics  and  chapters  in  this 
one  city,  the  diocesan  capital,  at  one  and  the  same 

234 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

time,  of  Latin  Catholics,  United  Greeks  and  Ar- 
menians. This  adds  greatly  to  the  splendor  of  the 
religious  ceremonies,  as  was  seen  at  the  funeral  of 
Cardinal  Sylvester  Sembratovicz,  Ruthenian  Arch- 
bishop of  Leopol.  The  Latin  episcopate  made  a 
special  point  to  honor  the  memory  of  this  eminent 
member  of  the  Sacred  College,  whose  sacerdotal  vir- 
tues won  universal  respect.  The  magnificence  of  the 
Oriental  Rites;  the  procession  of  the  monks  of  St. 
Basil,  the  faithful  guardians  of  the  integrity  of  the 
faith  among  the  Greek  Catholics;  the  imposing  cor- 
tege of  the  bishops  of  the  different  rites;  the  civil 
authorities  in  their  robes  of  office ;  the  Ruthenian  and 
Armenian  Polish  clergy  following  the  hearse  of  the 
regretted  cardinal, — all  this  conspired  to  make  a  pro- 
found impression  on  the  silent  multitude,  who  thus 
witnessed  the  triumph  of  the  union  of  Rome,  ce- 
mented in  life  and  death. 

It  has  often  been  asked  why  the  Armenians  have 
an  archbishop  at  Leopol.  The  reason  is  because  the 
city  is  situated  on  the  commercial  route  leading  from 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to  those  of  the  Baltic,  and 
was  formerly  an  exceptionally  important  center  for 
oriental  trade.  So  the  Armenians  used  to  congre- 
gate there  in  such  numbers  that  it  was  found  neces- 
sary on  this  account  to  create  a  special  diocese,  which 
is  small  today  on  account  of  the  falling  off  in  this 
trade.  But  the  religious  hierarchy  remains  the  same 
as  of  yore. 

In  Prussian  Poland,  the  condition  of  the  Church 
is  less  satisfactory.  It  has,  among  other  difficulties, 

235 


THE  VATICAN 

to  struggle  against  Protestant  proselytism,  which  en- 
deavors to  strengthen  its  position  in  Posen  by  coloni- 
zation and  the  spreading  of  the  German  language, 
and  by  the  erection  of  Protestant  churches  and  hos- 
pitals where  the  nursing  is  done  by  deaconesses. 

GERMANY 

The  German  Empire,  the  majority  of  whose  popu- 
lation is  Protestant,  may  be  called  the  very  fortress 
of  the  Reformation  spirit;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  it 
must  not  be  thought  that  the  Catholics  are  in  a  small 
minority.  In  a  population  of  64,903,423  souls,  as 
given  by  the  census  of  1905,  there  are  22,094,462 
Roman  Catholics  and  15,152  Greek  Catholics,  making 
a  total  of  22,109,614;  that  is  to  say,  a  little  more 
than  a  third  of  the  whole  German  Empire  is  Catho- 
lic, a  rather  formidable  figure.  Yet,  oddly  enough, 
their  numerical  strength  has  not  always  been  recog- 
nized, as  it  should  have  been.  The  old  uncompromis- 
ing spirit  of  Huguenotism  is  accountable  for  more 
than  one  unfriendly  action  aimed  against  Catholi- 
cism, which  culminated  in  what  is  known  as  the  Kul- 
turkampf,  that  religious  warfare  provoked  by  Prince 
Bismarck,  who  violated  the  most  sacred  rights  of  Ger- 
man Catholics,  exiled  their  bishops  and  priests,  and 
broke  up  their  religious  charitable  institutions.  The 
complete  history  of  this  unworthy  action  is  best  given, 
perhaps,  in  two  French  works :  Goyau's  "L'Allemagne 
Religieuse,"  and  Count  Lefebvre  de  Behaine's  "Leon 
XIII  et  Bismarck." 

But  Prince  Bismarck's  declaration  of  war  did  not 

236 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

cause  the  German  Catholics  to  lose  heart;  quite  the 
contrary.  They  began  immediately  to  organize  a 
serious  political  and  parliamentary  resistance.  At 
the  polls,  they  showed  a  strict  party  discipline  that 
carried  everything  before  it  and  won  the  admiration 
of  the  world.  They  forced  their  way  into  the  Reich- 
stag, where  they  formed  a  compact  group  called  the 
Center,  which  eventually  reached  a  membership  of 
more  than  a  hundred  and  finally  forced  upon  parlia- 
ment the  recognition  of  Catholic  rights.  This  group 
showed  great  cleverness  in  parliamentary  tactics  by 
casting  their  solid  vote  first  with  one  faction  of  the 
opposition  and  then  with  another,  thus  threatening 
the  existence  of  any  ministry  which  refused  to  recog- 
nize the  legitimate  demands  of  the  Catholics.  Not- 
withstanding the  repeated  efforts  of  the  government, 
this  united  Center  could  never  be  shaken,  an  admir- 
able example  of  discipline  and  fidelity  to  a  principle 
which  might  be  followed  with  advantage  by  the  Catho- 
lic members  of  other  parliamentary  bodies. 

But  all  the  Catholic  members  of  the  German  Reich- 
stag are  not  found  in  the  Center.  The  deputies  from 
Alsace-Lorraine  and  Prussian  Poland  form  a  total 
of  some  twenty-five  Catholics,  and  the  Catholic  con- 
tingent is  rendered  all  the  more  imposing  by  the 
presence  as  deputies  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
priests.  Nor  is  the  Center  solely  a  religious  body. 
Besides  the  demands  for  justice  to  Catholics,  its 
platform  contains  a  well-thought-out  series  of  po- 
litical and  social  reforms.  Politically,  it  champions 
in  particular  universal  suffrage  and  the  strict  main- 

237 


THE  VATICAN 

tenance  of  the  federal  character  of  the  Empire. 
Socially,  the  Center  has  aided  efficaciously  in  the  pas- 
sage of  bills  protecting  the  working  classes,  such  as 
the  prohibition  of  Sunday  labor,  shortening  the  hours 
of  work  for  women  and  children  in  the  factories  and 
mines,  and  the  insurance  of  employes  against  accident. 
The  Center  has  always  urged  the  passage  of  measures 
protecting  agricultural  and  small  industrial  interests, 
and  especially  advocates  the  obligatory  organization 
of  labor  corporations.  For  these  reasons,  the  Center 
is  a  popular  party  in  all  the  best  senses  of  the  term, 
and  of  all  conservative  groups  is  the  most  success- 
ful in  combating  the  pernicious  doctrines  of  Social- 
ism, so  widely  spread  in  Germany.  In  fact,  the  Ger- 
man Catholics  exercise  a  most  healthy  social  influence 
throughout  the  nation  not  only  religiously,  but  by 
the  large  number  of  excellent  institutions  of  all  kinds 
due  to  their  initiative,  such  as  information  bureaus, 
working-men's  societies,  et  cetera.  It  should  be 
noted,  by  the  way,  that  the  socialist  deputies,  with 
three  or  four  exceptions,  are  generally  elected  in 
districts  where  Protestants  are  in  the  majority. 

The  manner  of  nominating  Catholic  bishops  in 
Germany  differs  in  different  states  of  the  confedera- 
tion. Thus,  in  Bavaria,  the  sovereign,  who  is  a  Catho- 
lic, enjoys,  in  virtue  of  the  Concordat  of  June  15, 
1817,  the  right  of  nomination  similar  to  that  exercised 
by  the  executive  authority  in  France  previous  to  the 
separation  of  Church  and  state.  In  the  German 
states  governed  by  Protestant  rulers,  the  nominations, 
after  a  preliminary  understanding  with  the  Holy  See, 

238 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

are  made  up  in  the  following  manner:  the  chapter  of 
the  cathedral  draws  up  a  list  of  candidates  which  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  government.  The  latter  has  the  right 
to  eliminate  the  names  it  does  not  like,  and  it  is  from 
this  revised  and  approved  list  that  the  chapter  finally 
decides,  in  accordance  with  canonical  rules,  who 
should  occupy  the  vacant  seat.  It  goes  without  say- 
ing that  the  bishop  thus  chosen  receives  the  canonical 
investiture  from  the  Vatican. 

But  the  ill-will  of  the  government  sometimes  ren- 
ders illusory  this  right  of  election  on  the  part  of  the 
chapter.  A  good  example  of  this  was  given  during 
the  closing  years  of  the  last  century  at  Freiburg,  in 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden.  For  more  than  a  year 
and  a  half  after  the  death  of  Monsignor  Roos,  in 
October  22,  1896,  the  see  was  vacant  because  the 
Baden  government  refused  to  return  the  list  of  can- 
didates presented  by  the  chapter.  Finally,  after  long 
and  difficult  negotiations,  an  agreement  was  reached 
with  the  name  of  Monsignor  Komp,  Bishop  of  Fulda, 
a  prelate  who  was  seventy  years  old.  This  happened 
on  March  21,  1898.  But  the  difficulty  did  not  end 
there.  Monsignor  Komp  showed  no  enthusiasm  to 
accept  the  post,  and  it  was  only  on  receipt  of  a  formal 
order  from  the  Vatican  that  he  started  for  Freiburg. 
Nor  did  this  act  of  obedience  close  the  complication. 
Divine  Providence  seemed  to  intervene.  The  noble 
prelate  died  on  May  10  at  Mainz,  while  on  the  way 
to  take  possession  of  his  new  post. 

These  relations  between  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
authorities  are  not  the  same  in  all  the  states  of  the 

239 


THE  VATICAN 

Empire.  The  only  country  with  a  Concordat  is  Ba- 
varia, where,  nevertheless,  Catholics  have  many  com- 
plaints to  make  about  the  annoyances  occasioned 
them  hy  the  civil  administration,  and  especially  the 
unjust  meddling  of  the  government  in  the  matter  of 
religious  education.  In  the  other  states  of  the  Em- 
pire, the  rights  enjoyed  by  Catholics  are  accorded 
them  by  the  governments;  there  is  no  Concordat,  no 
agreement  between  the  two  parties.  The  constitu- 
tion of  the  Empire  contains  almost  nothing  on  the 
subject.  Article  2  prohibits  "any  limitation  of  civil 
or  political  rights  because  of  differences  of  religion." 
Beyond  this,  each  state  is  left  quite  free  to  regulate 
its  own  religious  questions.  Legally,  the  state  in 
Germany  recognizes  the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic 
religion,  except  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklen- 
burg and  in  the  Duchy  of  Brunswick,  where  there  is 
a  Protestant  state  church  and  where  Catholicism  is 
tolerated,  under  many  restrictions,  by  a  special  con- 
cession which  may  be  revoked  at  any  time  by  the  chief 
of  state.  The  number  of  Catholics  in  these  two 
duchies  is  21,600  in  a  total  population  of  1,043,000. 

The  Prussian  constitution  guarantees  in  Article 
12,  "liberty  of  conscience,  liberty  of  forming  re- 
ligious associations  and  liberty  to  exercise  any  re- 
ligion, publicly  or  privately."  Article  22  reads,  fur- 
ther: "Any  one  is  free  to  teach  and  to  establish  or 
direct  educational  establishments,  provided  he  satis- 
fies the  authorities  as  to  his  moral  and  intellectual 
fitness  therefor";  and  Article  24,  "Religious  in- 
struction in  the  primary  schools  is  given  by  the  compe- 

240 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

tent  ecclesiastical  authority."  But  it  should  be  added 
that  these  articles  were  modified  or  suppressed  at  the 
time  of  the  Kulturkampf  by  a  series  of  laws  which 
still  exist  in  part.  All  the  efforts  of  Catholics  to  re- 
establish the  rights  guaranteed  by  the  constitution 
have  so  far  proved  ineffectual.  Consequently,  re- 
ligious orders  in  Prussia  exist  only  at  the  will  of  the 
government  and  their  authorization  may  be  revoked 
at  any  moment.  Religious  instruction  in  the  pri- 
mary schools  is  not  given  the  importance  which  it 
deserves  and  is  not  provided  by  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities. The  Catholic  bishops  are  not  free  to  train 
and  appoint  priests,  and  their  disciplinary  powers  are 
restricted.  The  administration  of  Church  property 
is  controlled  by  the  state.  These  are  only  some  of 
the  disabilities  from  which  the  Prussian  Catholics  suf- 
fer. 

The  establishment  of  Catholic  institutions  of  vari- 
ous kinds  is  prohibited  constitutionally  in  Saxony 
and  Hesse,  and  in  the  other  states  it  depends  on  the 
good-will  of  the  government.  Men's  monasteries 
are  prohibited  everywhere,  and  the  placet  of  the  au- 
thorities is  necessary  for  most  of  the  acts  of  ecclesi- 
astical bodies  in  Saxony,  Wiirttemberg,  Baden  and 
Hesse. 

Such  is  the  precarious  and  humiliating  situation  of 
Catholicism  in  the  different  states  of  the  German  Em- 
pire at  the  beginning  of  the  new  century. 

The  religious  situation  in  Alsace-Lorraine  is  rather 
complex.  The  Imperial  legislation  which  excludes 
certain  religious  orders,  the  Jesuits,  for  instance,  is 


THE  VATICAN 

exercised  at  the  same  time  as  the  provisions  of  the 
Concordat  of  1802  and  other  French  religious  legis- 
lation, which  the  government  finds  very  useful  when 
it  would  molest  the  Catholics.  Quite  contrary  to 
law,  the  Catholic  primary  schools  are  subject  to 
state  supervision.  They  must  follow  the  state  pro- 
gramme of  studies,  be  opened  to  the  state  inspectors 
and  all  teachers  must  be  approved  by  the  govern- 
ment. 

To  sum  up,  while  it  is  true  that  in  a  general  way 
religious  liberty  is  assured  by  the  laws  and  constitu- 
tions of  the  different  states  of  the  Empire,  it  is  not 
less  true  that  these  laws  are  a  dead  letter  in  most  parts 
of  the  nation  and  that  the  liberty  of  the  Catholic 
Church  is  largely  denied  everywhere,  while  all  govern- 
mental affairs  are  for  the  evangelical  churches  and 
their  members.  The  German  Empire,  reformed  un- 
der the  hegemony  of  .Prussia,  is  first,  whatever  may 
be  said  to  the  contrary,  a  Protestant  country.  Thus, 
when  it  is  proposed  to  "Germanize"  Poland  anpl 
Alsace-Lorraine,  this  simply  means  that  the  powers 
that  be  are  striving  to  Protestantize  them. 

It  is  not  only  the  Catholic  Church,  as  a  Church, 
which  is  persecuted  in  Germany,  but 'the  members  of 
this  Church  are  also  wronged.  The  simple  fact  that 
a  good  and  loyal  subject  is  a  Catholic  places  him  in 
an  inferior  position  to  his  fellow  countrymen,  not- 
withstanding the  texts  of  the  constitutions  of  the  vari- 
ous states.  The  high  administrative  and  judicial 
posts  in  the  state  service  are  almost  invariably  given 
to  Protestants.  Catholic  office-holders  may,  by  long 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

and  faithful  service,  work  up  to  a  high  grade,  but 
they  seldom  get  their  reward.  The  private  library 
of  the  Vatican  contains  a  very  complete  statistical 
study  of  this  subject  under  the  title  of,  "Parity  in 
Prussia,"  which  clearly  proves  that  Catholics  are  sys- 
tematically pushed  aside  in  order  that  Protestants  may 
be  advanced.  Thus,  in  the  Rhenish  Provinces,  where 
the  Catholic  population  is  three  times  as  great  as 
the  Protestant,  almost  all  the  chief  court  judges  and 
Imperial  district  attorneys  are  Protestants,  though 
in  the  lower  courts  the  number  of  Catholic  judges 
outnumbers  the  Protestant  ones.  The  same  thing  is 
true  in  Westphalia  and  Silesia,  where  the  Catholic 
population  is  predominant.  In  the  ordinary  civil 
service,  this  policy  is  still  more  noticeable.  In  Prus- 
sia, there  are  70  Catholic  sub-prefects  to  424  Prot- 
estant ones,  four  departmental  secretaries  to  123, 
three  prefects  to  31,  one  provincial  governor  to  11. 
Can  this  state  of  things  be  said  to  be  due  to  chance 
in  a  country  where  Catholics  form  one-third  of  the 
population?  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  there 
has  been  an  improvement  in  this  particular  during 
the  past  ten  years,  due  largely  to  indignant  protests 
from  Catholics  made  in  their  journals  and  in  the 
Reichstag. 

But  if,  notwithstanding  the  fanaticism  of  Prot- 
estants and  their  malevolence  of  government,  Catho- 
lics are  beginning  to  exercise  a  growing  influence 
on  the  march  of  affairs  in  Germany,  the  power  which 
the  Catholic  Center  exerts  in  the  federal  Reichstag 
does  not  find  its  counterpart  in  the  state  legislatures; 

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THE  VATICAN 

consequently,  many  laws  contrary  to  the  liberty  of  the 
Church  have  yet  to  be  removed  from  the  statute-books. 
Furthermore,  because  of  the  peculiar  constitutional 
regime  which  prevails  in  Germany,  the  Reichstag  can 
do  nothing  to  remove  these  objectionable  laws  unless 
the  government  concurs.  For  example,  during  a 
single  session  of  the  legislature,  the  Reichstag,  by  a 
very  respectable  majority,  four  times  voted  the  ab- 
rogation of  the  law  against  the  Jesuits;  but  the  gov- 
ernment paid  no  attention  thereto. 

In  Germany,  the  month  of  August  is  annually  de- 
voted to  great  Catholic  meetings.  A  simple  enumera- 
tion of  these  gatherings  for  one  year,  1908,  gives  a 
good  idea  of  their  number  and  variety.  Thus,  on 
August  sixth,  the  Sixth  Congress  of  the  German  So- 
ciety of  Christian  Art  met  at  Ravensburg,  in  Wiirt- 
temberg ;  on  the  twelfth,  at  Hanover,  the  Twenty-first 
Congress  of  the  Association  of  German  Catholic  Mer- 
chants ;  on  the  thirtieth,  at  Wiirzburg,  the  Third  Con- 
gress of  the  Presidents  of  the  Young  Men's  Catholic 
Associations,  et  cetera.  The  most  important  of 
these  assemblies  was  the  Forty-fifth  Congress  of 
German  Catholics  held  at  Crefeld,  the  most  success- 
ful of  these  gatherings.  There  were  several  thou- 
sand delegates,  much  enthusiasm  was  displayed, 
great  harmony  prevailed,  and  the  meeting  through- 
out was  characterized  by  an  admirable  spirit  of  disci- 
pline. These  assemblies  have  been  happily  called 
"the  grand  maneuvers  of  Catholicism."  Parlia- 
mentary leaders  and  lay  notables  make  it  a  point  to 
attend.  Political,  religious  and  social  questions  are 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

examined  and  discussed  by  special  committees  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose,  while  every  evening  large 
public  meetings  are  held  where  the  best  speakers  are 
heard. 

A  very  original  'and  happy  creation  of  the  Volks- 
Verein,  a  popular  Catholic  association  for  combating 
Socialism,  is  the  Praktischer  Socialer  Kursus,  or 
Practical  Sociological  Courses,  which  since  1892  have 
spread  all  over  Germany.  This  "popular  ambulatory 
university,"  as  the  institution  has  well  been  called, 
has  accomplished  much  good  work.  It  is  evident 
that  the  complex  social  question  cannot  be  thoroughly 
examined  in  lectures  extending  over  a  few  days.  But 
this  is  not  the  purpose  of  these  courses;  their  more 
modest  aim  is  to  popularize  fundamental  facts,  to 
start  on  right  lines  those  who  wish  to  study  social 
problems  more  deeply  and  to  stimulate  the  ardor  of 
all  thoughtful  people.  The  Rector  Magnificus  of 
this  university  is  the  Abbe  Hitze,  professor  at 
Minister  University  and  member  of  the  Reichstag, 
who  is  well  known  for  his  knowledge  of  economic  and 
social  matters.  Though  not  a  good  orator,  the  Abbe 
Hitze  knows  how  to  present  clearly  and  vivaciously 
the  dryest  statistics.  The  most  brilliant  speaker  of 
the  group  is  unquestionably  Father  Heinrich  Pesch, 
who,  with  remarkable  logic  and  precision,  has  pre- 
sented the  history  of  contemporary  Socialism. 

In  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  Holland  and 
Poland  a  similar  practice  has  been  established  known 
as  "Social  Week."  One  of  these  Catholic  gatherings 
was  that  held  at  Bordeaux,  in  August,  1009,  under 

245 


THE  VATICAN 

the  presidency  of  Cardinal  Andrieu.  It  was  the 
sixth  of  its  kind  held  in  France.  The  idea  first  took 
shape  at  Lyons,  in  1904,  when  a  group  of  young  men, 
priests  and  laymen,  ardently  devoted  to  work  among 
the  people  and  feeling,  at  the  same  time,  the  need  of 
some  authority  over  their  activity,  decided  to  base 
their  labor  on  the  solid  foundation  of  a  well-established 
doctrine.  The  idea  responded  to  the  desires  of  the 
more  thoughtful  rising  generation  and  to  the  parish 
priests,  who  longed  for  a  union  of  soul  and  mind, 
and  it  spread  rapidly. 

Today  these  Social  Weeks  are  Catholic  reunions 
which  last  eight  days  and  are  devoted  to  the  ex- 
amination of  various  grave  social  problems.  The  sub- 
jects are  presented  in  the  form  of  lectures  delivered 
by  well-known  theologians,  lawyers  and  political 
economists.  These  meetings  are  blessed  by  the  Pope, 
encouraged  by  the  bishops  and  are  more  largely  at- 
tended every  year.  Whatever  may  be  one's  ideas, 
conceptions  and  beliefs,  nothing  appears  more  worthy 
of  respect  and  sympathy  than  the  disinterested  efforts 
of  these  young  men,  full  of  confidence  in  the  power 
and  fecundity  of  their  faith,  who,  in  the  midst  of  the 
troubles  of  the  age,  would  guide  and  enlighten  the 
minds  of  the  laboring  classes  and  devote  themselves 
generously  to  this  service.  They  perceive,  as  does 
the  Vatican,  that  we  are  living  in  the  midst  of  the  la- 
borious birth  of  a  new  time  and  a  new  regime.  The 
social  conceptions  of  the  past  century  and  the  political 
organization  which  was  their  expression  will  not  give 
way  at  a  single  blow.  The  regime  goes  to  pieces  little 

246 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

by  little  until  a  sudden  and  unexpected  shock  precipi- 
tates it  with  a  crash. 

The  all-powerfulness  of  wealth  and  the  absolute 
rule  of  the  materialistic  upper  middle-class  are  being 
gradually  undermined.  This  is  the  capital  fact  of 
our  time,  and  interests  Catholics,  long  attracted  by 
the  problems  of  social  evolution,  much  more  than  cur- 
rent politics.  The  number  of  such  Catholics  increases 
daily.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  they  were  but 
a  handful;  today,  they  can  be  counted  by  the  thou- 
sands. "They  are  the  men  of  tomorrow,"  says  a 
distinguished  and  warm  supporter  of  this  part  of  the 
Vatican's  policy,  M.  de  Mun  of  the  French  Academy, 
"whose  eyes  are  turned  toward  the  future.  They  are 
unfettered  by  prejudices  and  the  rules  of  a  dying 
social  system.  They  are  determined  not  to  die  with 
it,  nor  permit  their  country  to  be  precipitated  into  the 
yawning  gulf  which  otherwise  awaits  us.  And,  while 
many  about  them  suffer  themselves  to  be  carried 
along  by  the  current,  these  valiant  ones,  notwithstand- 
ing the  persecution  which  checks  them  at  every  step 
and  would  turn  them  from  the  right  course,  strive 
that  the  torrent  may  enrich  rather  than  devastate  the 
land."  These  men,  in  a  word,  believe  firmly  and  pro- 
foundly in  the  virtues  of  Christianity.  They  know 
that,  rising  above  the  passions  which  divide  men,  in- 
dependently of  all  governments  and  political  parties, 
this  Christian  doctrine  can,  without  fear  of  failure, 
let  corrupt  societies  be  swept  away  in  order  to  give 
place  to  new  societies,  as  when  centuries  ago,  the 
Church  baptized  barbarians.  This  is  the  simple 
i:  247 


THE  VATICAN 

policy  of  the  friends  of  the  "Social  Weeks,"  this  was 
the  ruling  idea  at  Bordeaux  and  this  is  the  pro- 
gramme that  the  Vatican  approves. 

But  to  return  to  Germany,  where  public  instruc- 
tion is  such  an  important  concern  of  state  and  people. 
Of  course,  German  Catholics  are  much  concerned 
about  the  whole  subject,  especially  as  practically  no 
teaching  of  any  kind  is  done  outside  of  the  state.  The 
German  government  monopolizes  primary  and  sec- 
ondary education.  The  institutions  which  appear  to 
be  independent  of  the  state  are  only  primary  schools 
established  by  private  individuals  and  whose  teachers 
and  programme  of  studies  must  be  approved  by  the 
state. 

The.  primary  schools  of  Germany  are  really  sec- 
tarian, but  the  secondary  schools  are  non-sectarian. 
The  pupils  of  the  latter  are  separated  for  religious 
instruction,  which  instruction  is  obligatory  in  both 
grades.  Of  the  twenty-one  state  universities  of  Ger- 
many, seven  have  Catholic  theological  seminaries, 
which  all  who  aspire  to  be  priests  must  attend.  In 
addition,  there  are  seven  secondary  Catholic  schools 
and  eight  seminaries,  all  reserved  exclusively  for  the 
education  of  priests.  So,  though  Protestants  are 
yery  active  in  the  field  of  theological  instruction, 
Catholics  are  creditably  organized  in  the  same  depart- 
ment. They  are  still  further  strengthened  in  this 
direction  by  the  Goerres  Society,  a  very  widely  spread 
association,  whose  object  is  to  promote  instruction  in 
Catholic  Germany.  Ten  years  ago,  at  the  time  of 
the  annual  meeting  at  Wiirzburg,  it  counted  a  mem- 

248 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

bership  of  10,000.     Such  vigorous  effort  is  producing 
good  fruit  and  must  produce  still  more. 


THE   UNITED    STATES 

Though  the  majority  of  the  population  of  the 
United  States  is  Protestant,  Americans  understand 
liberty  in  a  larger  manner  than  the  Germans,  and  the 
Catholic  Church  can  only  congratulate  itself  on  the 
pleasant  relations  existing  between  it  and  the  authori- 
ties. The  Church  is  given  every  facility  to  develop 
and  organize  as  it  pleases  provided  is  respects  the 
general  laws  to  which  all  the  citizens  are  subject. 
There  are  in  America  no  laws  to  which  the  Church 
is  especially  subjected.  As  everybody  knows,  there 
is  no  state  religion  in  the  Union.  All  sects  are  equal 
in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  which  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  the  state  declines  to  recognize  them  and  even  ig- 
nores them,  as  is  the  case  in  France,  for  instance.  Far 
from  it;  though  the  government  has  no  diplomatic 
representative  at  the  Vatican,  the  Holy  See  accredits 
to  Washington  an  apostolic  delegate,  who  is  assisted 
by  an  auditor  and  a  secretary;  and  this  envoy  is  re- 
ceived with  marked  esteem. 

The  reception  given,  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  to 
the  recent  apostolic  delegate,  Monsignor  Martinelli, 
Archbishop  of  Ephesus,  demonstrates  the  generosity 
with  which  the  Catholic  Church  is  treated  in  the 
United  States  in  the  person  of  the  Pope's  official 
representative.  For  this  reason,  a  few  details  of  this 
visit  may  be  given  here.  Ab  uno  disce  omnes. 

249 


THE  VATICAN 

A  committee  of  one  hundred  leading  citizens  was 
formed  to  arrange  the  details  of  the  reception.  A 
large  room  of  the  city  hall  was  richly  decorated  for 
the  occasion  and  the  two  thousand  persons  who  filed 
through  it  to  shake  the  hand  of  the  delegate  repre- 
sented all  circles  of  the  city.  The  line  was  two  hours 
in  passing  before  the  guest  of  the  day,  and  its  ad- 
vance was  checked  only  by  an  occasional  special  pre- 
sentation by  Archbishop  Ireland  of  some  personality, 
such  as  the  governor  of  the  state,  judges  of  the  su- 
preme court,  Protestant  bishops,  et  cetera.  This 
fact  shows  that  the  Pope's  representative  was  wel- 
comed not  only  by  the  Catholic  element  of  the  popula- 
tion but  by  the  whole  body  of  citizens  irrespective  of 
creed.  In  fact  this  was  dwelt  upon  in  the  address 
of  welcome  delivered  by  one  of  the  leading  advocates 
of  the  city,  to  whom  Monsignor  Martinelli  made  a 
reply,  which  should  be  quoted  in  part,  as  it  brings 
out  clearly  the  state  of  Catholicism  in  this  great  re- 
public. 

"An  observing  mind  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  fact 
that  the  progress  made  by  the  Catholic  Church  in  this  country 
is  due  not  only  to  the  principles  and  doctrines  of  the  Church 
itself,  but  also  to  the  liberty  which  it  enjoys  in  this  part  of 
the  world.  Since  my  arrival  on  these  shores,  I  have  seen 
with  my  own  eyes  the  greatness  of  this  land  of  which  I  had 
often  heard  spoken.  I  have  naturally  been  astonished  at  the 
rapid  advance  made  by  this  young  nation  not  only  in  civil 
and  political  directions  but  also  in  economic  fields.  But  I 
often  ask  myself  why  one  should  be  astonished  at  this  when 
it  concerns  a  country  where  such  free  rein  is  given  to  the 

250 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

energies  of  the  human  mind  that  it  can  develop  in  a  fruitful 
manner? 

"I  have  also  observed  with  natural  joy  and  satisfaction 
that  along  with  social  progress,  the  Church  whose  action  is 
here  left  quite  free,  has  not  made  less  progress  in  its  sphere. 
I  hear  this  said  with  pleasure  on  every  hand,  and  I  notice 
that  its  work  as  a  civilizing  and  educative  power  is  every- 
where fully  recognized  and  praised  even  by  those  who  are  not 
members  of  our  Church,  and  by  those  who  do  not  yet  under- 
stand the  power  and  spirit  of  divine  action.  Nowhere  else 
have  I  found  a  stronger  and  clearer  confirmation  of  all  this 
than  here  in  Minnesota.  I  have  visited  most  of  your  educa- 
tional and  charitable  institutions  and  I  know  whereof  I 
speak. 

"It  is  impossible  to  explain  satisfactorily  such  progress 
as  this  unless  we  first  admit  the  intrinsic  virtue  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  inspirations  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ.  Fur- 
thermore, everything  in  this  country  aids  the  action  of  the 
Church.  In  fact,  no  land  is  better  prepared  than  your 
America  to  receive  the  holy  seed  confided  to  her.  May  you 
long  remain  a  model  people  for  all  other  nations  in  this 
matter  of  Church  and  state." 

There  are  many  other  examples  of  this  spirit  of 
large  tolerance  and  scrupulous  justice  which  charac- 
terizes the  Americans  when  they  have  to  do  with  re- 
ligious questions.  Reports  of  this  kind  reach  the 
Vatican  frequently  and  are  always  warmly  welcomed 
there.  One  or  two  more  examples  of  this  sort  may 
be  given  here. 

At  the  West  Point  Military  Academy  there  was  but 
one  church  erected  by  the  state  and  but  one  chaplain 
who  presided  over  it,  a  Protestant.  The  Catholics 

251 


THE  VATICAN 

naturally  complained  of  this,  and  without  asking  for 
a  Catholic  chaplain  in  an  institution  whose  pupils  are 
so  largely  Protestant,  they  requested  permission  to 
erect  on  the  reservation  a  Catholic  chapel  where  the 
Catholic  cadets  could  attend  service.  So  on  June  29, 
1898,  a  bill  to  this  effect  was  introduced  into  Congress 
and  passed  the  Lower  House  by  134  to  25,  and  finally 
became  a  law;  by  which  any  religious  body,  with  the 
approval  of  the  War  Department,  may  erect  at  West 
Point  churches  or  chapels.  But  everybody  knew 
that  the  Catholics  alone  would  take  advantage  of  this 
permission.  It  was,  therefore,  a  double  triumph  for 
the  cause  of  religious  toleration. 

In  the  State  of  Illinois,  a  question,  important  to 
Catholics,  was  taken  before  the  courts  for  decision. 
The  question  was  to  know  whether  a  Catholic  parish 
could  be  considered  a  civil  person  in  a  position  to  re- 
ceive legacies  which  were  to  be  used  for  the  celebration 
of  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  the  testator. 
The  circuit  court  of  Chicago  had  declared  such  a  testa- 
ment to  be  invalid;  but  the  supreme  court  of  Illinois 
reversed  this  decision  of  the  lower  court  and  pro- 
nounced such  a  will  valid.  This  happened  towards 
the  end  of  the  last  century  and  was  the  first  time  that 
the  question  was  examined  by  so  high  a  judicial  body 
in  the  United  States.  It  offers  a  good  example  of 
the  fair  treatment  accorded  to  Catholics  by  the  Ameri- 
can tribunals  and  was  highly  appreciated  at  the  Vati- 
can. The  full  text  of  the  decision  will  be  found  in  the 
New  York  Freeman's  Journal  of  February  29,  1898. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  Catholi- 

252 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

cism  does  not  suffer  persecution  in  the  United  States. 
It  lives  and  labors  there  in  perfect  security,  and  has, 
in  consequence,  developed  in  a  wonderful  fashion.  A 
few  proofs  of  this  fact  may  be  given  here.  Thus, 
Cardinal  Logue,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  after  a  visit 
to  the  United  States,  sent  some  interesting  data  to 
the  Vatican.  He  pointed  out  in  an  address  in  Ireland 
that  in  1808  there  was  one  single  Catholic  bishop  in 
the  whole  United  States,  whereas  in  1908,  a  century 
later,  there  were  14  archbishops,  90  bishops,  14,444 
priests,  11,584  churches  and  chapels  and  twenty  mil- 
lions of  Catholics  in  a  total  population  of  84,216,433. 
These  figures  are  confirmed  by  a  letter  in  the  London 
Times  of  January  27,  1908,  to  which  the  attention  of 
the  Vatican  has  been  called.  It  is  there  said  that 
the  LTnited  States  proper  contains  14,235,451,  the 
colonial  possessions  8,238,989,  the  grand  total  being 
22,474,440.  An  article  by  Cardinal  Gibbons,  which 
appeared  in  the  Catholic  Mirror  in  January,  1898, 
and  which  is  filed  at  the  Vatican,  puts  at  30,000  the 
annual  conversions  to  Catholicism  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  Vatican  archives  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  this  number  is  much  larger  today. 

Catholic  instruction  at  all  stages  has  been  perfectly 
organized  by  the  American  episcopate,  and  the  edu- 
cational system  is  crowned  by  the  well-known  Catholic 
University  at  Washington,  whose  annual  expenses 
exceed  $140,000,  which  is  provided  by  generous  do- 
nors. But  the  number  of  students  is  not  so  large  as  it 
should  be  when  one  takes  into  account  the  pecuniary 
sacrifices  made  for  the  maintenance  of  the  institution. 

253 


THE  VATICAN 

The  chief  cause  of  this  has  been  pointed  out  in  a 
pastoral  letter  by  Archbishop  Ireland, — parents  are 
too  much  disposed  to  send  their  sons  to  the  universi- 
ties in  their  own  states.  Four-fifths  of  the  Catholic 
youth  of  America  who  attend  college  are  found  in 
the  universities  where  their  faith  is  weakened  and 
where  indifference  to  religious  influences  has  even 
affected  the  Protestant  students.  It  is  a  common 
remark  in  educational  circles  in  America  to  say,  for 
instance,  that  you  have  simply  to  send  a  boy  to  the 
Presbyterian  University  of  Princeton  to  take  away 
his  Presbyterianism,  or  to  the  Baptist  University  of 
Chicago  to  wean  him  from  his  Baptist  faith.  So  of 
course  for  our  Catholic  young  men  attendance  at  such 
institutions  is  still  worse.  Even  if  their  belief  is  never 
directly  attacked  or  put  in  a  false  light,  though  this 
frequently  happens,  nothing  is  done  to  impress  on 
their  growing  minds  the  great  truths  of  Catholicism. 
The  conditions  are  rendered  still  worse  by  the  moral 
dangers  which  surround  these  American  collegians, 
where  the  teachers  have  no  care  of  their  pupils'  pri- 
vate life.  Another  fault  committed  by  Catholic 
parents  in  America  is  their  doing  next  to  nothing  to 
remove  these  objections  in  the  state  universities,  which 
they  help  to  support  by  their  taxes.  Here  they  have 
rights  which  they  should  make  use  of.  Why  do  they 
permit,  without  protest,  clergymen  to  be  sometimes 
put  at  the  head  of  the  state  university?  Why  do 
they  pay  the  public  library  tax  without  seeing  what 
kind  of  books  are  bought  by  the  librarian  and  forcing 
him  to  buy  Catholic  books  also  ?  Would  Protestants 

254 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

and  others  leave  him  in  peace  if  he  failed  to  put  on 
the  shelves  the  works  which  they  want? 

This  ensemble  of  higher  education  in  the  United 
States  is  completed,  especially  for  the  ecclesiastical 
sciences,  by  the  American  Pontifical  College  at  Rome, 
where  future  priests  are  educated.  In  June,  1909, 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  this  insti- 
tution was  celebrated  at  Rome,  the  festivities  being 
especially  notable  for  the  great  number  of  bishops 
and  alumni  who  were  present  from  the  United  States 
and  who  thus  showed  their  respect  and  love  for  this 
honored  seat  of  learning.  On  this  occasion,  Mon- 
signor  Keiley,  Bishop  of  Savannah,  a  graduate  of  the 
college,  read  to  His  Holiness,  Pius  X,  a  fine  address 
in  which  he  pointed  out  the  great  freedom  enjoyed  by 
Catholics  in  the  United  States,  and  the  happy  conse- 
quences springing  therefrom.  This  passage  espe- 
cially pleased  the  Pope:  "In  our  country,  Most 
Holy  Father,  the  Church  is  free  and  our  religion  is 
respected;  consequently,  our  spiritual  pastors  can, 
with  the  greatest  success,  occupy  themselves  with  the 
saving  of  souls.  The  development  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  United  States  has  been  astounding,  and 
this  is  due  to  God  and  Rome.  All  of  us  are  Ameri- 
can citizens;  but  above  all,  we  are  Catholics." 

This  broad  liberty  which  the  Catholic  population 
of  America  enjoys  today  has  been  secured  by  the 
vigorous  efforts  of  the  Catholics  themselves ;  for,  from 
colonial  times  and  until  after  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, even  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  great 

255 


THE  VATICAN 

majority  Protestant,  stirred  up  many  difficulties  for 
their  Catholic  fellow-citizens  which  often  presented 
clearly  the  character  of  an  organized  and  threatening 
persecution.  However,  little  by  little,  a  powerful 
sentiment  of  toleration  and  reciprocal  respect,  engen- 
dered by  a  prevailing  love  of  liberty,  dissipated  these 
dangers  and  brought  about  a  spirit  of  peace  and  good- 
will. In  fact,  the  American  Catholics  had  simply  to 
take  their  stand  on  the  constitution  of  the  country, 
and  keep  its  provisions  clearly  before  the  public  eye, 
demanding  that  these  provisions  be  applied  to  them, 
in  order  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  their  adversaries. 
By  a  ceaseless  demand  for  liberty  based  on  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  land,  and,  at  the  same  time,  showing 
themselves  to  be  good  and  loyal  American  citizens 
strongly  attached  to  the  national  institutions,  they 
forced  the  putting  aside  of  all  ill-will  and  suspicions 
of  every  kind.  But  American  Catholics  were  not  con- 
tented with  vain  protestations  and  empty  complaints. 
Instead  of  passing  their  time  in  inveighing  against 
their  opponents,  telumque  imbelle  sine  ictu,  they  made 
the  most  of  the  scraps  of  liberty  which  were  within 
reach,  defending  themselves  therewith,  winning  the 
sympathy  of  their  neighbors,  and  making  friends  of 
all  those  who  were  not  blinded  by  mere  passion. 
They  showed  themselves  to  be  good  citizens  by  zeal- 
ously taking  part  in  public  affairs,  so  that  by  not 
sulking  in  their  tents,  they  often,  on  great  public 
occasions,  were  able  in  their  own  persons  to  give  a 
prominent  position  to  the  Church  which  they  repre- 
sented. The  Vatican  cannot  too  strongly  recom- 

256 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

mend  this  course  to  its  faithful  in  certain  other  lands. 
How  often  have  American  Presidents,  themselves 
Protestants,  recognized  publicly  the  patriotism  and 
loyalty  of  Catholics.  For  instance,  in  June,  1909, 
President  Taft  showed  the  spirit  of  cordiality  which 
exists  in  America  between  Catholicism  and  the  civil 
authorities.  It  was  at  a  meeting  of  Catholic  mission- 
aries held  at  the  Catholic  University,  that  the  Presi- 
dent was  introduced  to  the  assembly  in  these  words 
by  Father  Doyle:  "It  is  with  great  satisfaction  that 
we  welcome  you  here,  Mr.  President.  We  are  Catho- 
lics in  everything  and  for  everything,  but  at  the  same 
time  we  are  American  citizens,  for  a  good  Catholic 
is  surely  a  good  American.  When  you  were,  Mr. 
President,  in  the  Southern  States  of  this  Union,  re- 
cently, you  were  called  the  Grand  Harmonizer,  and 
it  is  this  same  title,  too,  which  we  would  give  to  you." 
President  Taft's  reply  was  from  beginning  to  end 
a  signal  proof  of  the  remarkably  friendly  relations 
which  exist  in  the  United  States  between  the  Catholic 
Church  and  the  federal  government.  He  began  by 
speaking  of  the  great  advantages  which  accrue  from 
the  contact  and  association  of  the  representatives  of 
the  political  and  the  ecclesiastical  authorities ;  referred 
to  the  fact  that  the  Catholic  chaplains  of  the  army  and 
navy  were  on  the  best  of  terms  with  the  civil  and 
military  powers;  recalled  his  official  mission  during 
the  Roosevelt  administration  for  the  settlement  of 
Catholic  interests  in  the  Philippines,  when  those 
islands  passed  from  Spanish  to  American  rule;  re- 
minded his  hearers  of  his  trip  to  Rome  in  this  con- 

257 


THE  VATICAN 

nection,  of  his  audience  with  the  Pope,  Leo  XIII, 
"one  of  the  greatest  Pontiffs,  of  highest  character 
and  broadest  intellect,"  of  his  discussions  and  negoti- 
ations with  Monsignor  Guidi  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Manila,  Monsignor  Harty,  which  ended  in  such  a 
satisfactory  fashion  for  all  parties,  so  that  today  there 
are  no  Church  complications  in  the  annexed  islands; 
and  he  closed  with  these  very  remarkable  words:  "I 
do  not  hesitate  to  affirm,  my  dear  friends,  that  if  this 
visit  of  mine  to  Rome  had  been  made  forty  or  fifty 
years  ago,  it  would  have  sufficed  to  bring  down  popu- 
lar and  congressional  blame  on  any  administration 
which  had  assumed  the  responsibility  of  it." 

When  the  report  of  this  meeting  between  the  Chief 
Magistrate  of  the  Great  Republic  and  this  assemblage 
of  humble  missionaries  reached  the  Vatican  it  pro- 
duced a  most  favorable  impression.  How  happily 
the  times  have  changed,  was  the  comment  heard  on 
every  hand.  And  it  should  be  pointed  out,  as  a  com- 
pliment to  American  Catholics  and  as  a  suggestion 
to  Catholics  in  some  other  countries  to  take  their 
American  brethren  as  models,  that  if  official  and  pub- 
lic opinion  has  changed  in  the  United  States  in  the 
last  half -century,  as  stated  by  the  President,  this  is 
largely  due  to  the  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  the 
American  Catholics,  who  have  shown  that  they  knew 
how  to  utilize  the  liberty  which  prevails  in  the  United 
States  with  a  perseverance  and  a  tact  that  has  never 
failed  them.  They  saw  very  clearly  that  the  freedom 
of  the  Church  must  be  won  by  a  struggle;  that  it 
could  come  only  after  a  frank,  constant,  vigorous  and 

258 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

enthusiastic  effort,  supported  by  love  of  God  and  love 
of  the  Church ;  that  it  was  not  simply  a  matter  of  de- 
fending oneself  but  of  securing  a  triumph.  It  is  this 
necessity  of  constancy  in  energy  and  effort,  without 
truce  or  repose,  which  seems,  alas !  to  make  too  many 
otherwise  good  Catholics  of  the  Old  World  hesitate. 

The  education  of  American  womanhood  has  also 
been  an  object  of  solicitude  on  the  part  of  the  Catho- 
lic clergy  of  the  United  States.  With  this  end  in 
view,  it  has  been  the  custom  for  several  years  to  have 
the  teaching  Sisters  follow  lectures  on  the  science  of 
pedagogy  given  during  the  long  vacation.  The  num- 
ber of  sessions  have  grown  and  the  attendance  on  the 
lectures  increased.  For  instance,  the  meeting  at  Chi- 
cago, in  1898,  the  last  which  has  been  well  reported 
to  the  Vatican,  was  especially  notable,  as  a  dozen  dif- 
ferent congregations  took  part  in  it.  The  Sisters 
listened  to  lectures  by  former  inspectresses  of  state 
schools  and  by  ecclesiastics.  In  some  dioceses,  the 
bishops  themselves  presided  over  the  ceremonies  in 
connection  with  these  courses. 

This  American  method  was  tried  in  France,  but 
failed  after  having  caused  quite  a  polemic  even  in 
the  episcopacy  itself.  It  is  true  that  Sister  Marie  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  the  promotress  of  this  movement, 
wished  to  go  much  further  than  the  Americans,  and 
in  her  book  on  "The  Teaching  Nuns"  proposes  the 
founding  of  normal  and  high  schools  exclusively  for 
nuns,  taking  those  of  the  state  as  models.  To  justify 
such  a  new  departure,  the  friends  of  the  measure  did 
not  hesitate  to  declare  that  the  nuns  of  today  are  only 

259 


THE  VATICAN 

half  educated.  This  was  too  severe  a  criticism,  as  is 
proved  by  the  success  of  the  nuns'  pupils  at  the  vari- 
ous public  examinations  in  which  they  take  part. 
But  the  great  objection  to  the  measure  was  the  ne- 
cessity for  the  young  nuns  to  leave  their  convents  for 
a  term  of  years  in  order  to  attend  these  schools,  where 
they  would  be  far  from  their  superiors,  in  very  dif- 
ferent surroundings  from  those  they  were  accustomed 
to,  and  in  daily  contact  with  other  young  companions 
coming  from  institutes  and  convents  having  different 
rules  and  usages.  It  was  felt  that  all  this  could  not 
be  favorable  to  the  religious  building  up  of  these 
young  women,  and  the  authorities  of  the  Vatican  con- 
demned the  measure.  But  approval  was  given  to  the 
establishment  in  the  great  teaching  communities  of 
courses  in  pedagogy  and  kindred  instruction,  where 
the  best  professors  of  the  universities  delivered  lec- 
tures. But  the  recent  persecution  in  France  of  the 
religious  teaching  bodies  has  caused,  for  the  time 
being,  the  disappearance  of  these  excellent  institu- 
tions. 

CANADA 

Canada,  which  was  discovered  and  first  opened  up 
by  Frenchmen,  now  forms,  as  everybody  knows,  a 
part  of  the  British  Empire.  Its  population,  which 
is  about  six  millions,  is  nearly  half  Catholic.  An  ad- 
mirable spirit  of  tolerance  and  peace  reigns  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics,  due  largely  to  the  prudence 
of  the  episcopacy,  a  fine  example  of  which  is  given  in 
these  words,  as  reported  to  the  Vatican,  by  Monsignor 

260 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

O'Connor,  Archbishop  of  Toronto,  when  he  took  pos- 
session of  his  see  in  1899: 

"There  are  three  things  which  are  apt  to  disturb  the 
harmony  which  should  always  prevail  between  the  citizens 
of  the  same  city  and  same  country, — an  uncompromising 
holding  to  one's  opinions,  political  discussions  and  religious 
controversies.  Without  doubt,  Catholics  should  know  what 
their  rights  are  and  then  stoutly  claim  them,  though  these 
claims  need  not  be  absolutely  inflexible,  as  this  might  be  the 
cause  of  grave  injustices.  In  some  cases,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  account  contrary  opinions  and  to  be  ready  to  sacri- 
fice a  part  of  our  rights  in  order  to  keep  peace  and  contribute 
to  the  social  solidarity.  All  my  efforts  shall  tend  to  soften 
asperities  which  exist  or  which  may  be  born  later,  and  to  show 
all  our  fellow-citizens  of  every  faith  that  we  entertain  for 
them  only  the  friendliest  feelings. 

"Political  discussions  are  frequently  the  cause  of  dissen- 
sion even  among  good  citizens.  Though  I  am  proud  of  my 
country  and  have  a  lively  interest  in  its  happiness  and  pros- 
perity, I  am  not  a  party  man,  so  that  I  never  become  em- 
broiled in  political  squabbles.  I  always  respect  the  convic- 
tions of  those  who  think  they  can  best  serve  their  country 
under  this  banner  rather  than  under  that  one,  and  all  I  ask 
of  government  is  to  extend  its  benefits  to  all  without  distinc- 
tion of  creed  or  politics.  This  is  the  way  in  which  God 
governs,  and  all  those  who  exercise  a  parcel  of  his  authority, 
whether  religious  or  civil,  are  unfaithful  to  their  trust  if 
they  do  not  make  their  acts  conform  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Divine  Master. 

"The  third  brand  of  discord  which  we  should  try  to  pro- 
vide against  is  to  prevent  so-called  religious  controversies, 
which  are  as  useless  as  they  are  fruitful  in  acrimonious  dis- 
putes. That  Catholics  should  believe  firmly  in  the  teachings 

261 


THE  VATICAN 

of  their  Church,  which  is  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ, — this 
cannot  be  ground  for  discussion.  But  just  as  we  respect 
the  beliefs  of  our  other  fellow  countrymen,  so  we  have  the 
right  to  expect  from  them  the  same  respect  for  our  belief. 
But  we  do  not  think  that  any  religious  interests  can  be 
advanced  by  irritating  debates  on  this  subject." 

The  Vatican  was  pleased  to  perceive  that  these 
excellent  words,  so  just  and  so  appropriate  to  the 
occasion,  produced  an  admirable  impression.  The 
English  and  Protestant  press  was  unanimous  in  its 
praise  of  the  moderation  and  breadth  of  view  of  the 
new  archbishop,  and  the  first  results  of  this  apostolic 
prudence  was  to  calm  down  the  virulent  agitation 
then  going  on  between  the  Orangemen  and  the  Catho- 
lics, which  had  been  a  discredit  to  Toronto  for  many 
years. 

In  1900,  the  Archbishop  of  Montreal  gave  another 
example  of  the  excellent  sort  of  Catholic  spirit  which 
reigns  in  Canada,  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Vatican,  and  because  of  this  approval,  it  will  be  well 
to  give  here  a  portion  of  this  address,  the  main  object 
being  that  Catholics  throughout  the  world  may  thus 
see  what  does  and  what  does  not  please  the  Holy  See. 

"We  live  in  the  midst  of  a  mixed  population  and  I 
am  happy  to  say  that  we  all  get  on  well  together. 
But,  while  our  social  relations  are  characterized  by 
a  friendly  spirit,  it  is  rare  that  religious  questions  are 
the  subject  of  conversation.  The  consequence  is  that 
among  a  great  many  of  our  fellow-countrymen  this 
custom  has  given  rise  to  misunderstandings  and  views 
which  I  should  like  to  see  removed."  This  was  ac- 

262 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

complished  in  the  main  and  this  is  the  part  of  the 
archbishop's  policy  which  is  especially  worthy  of  atten- 
tion— by  inviting  both  Catholics  and  Protestants  to 
the  large  Cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  where  Catholicism 
was  explained  in  a  series  of  interesting  lectures.  All 
this  had  the  effect  of  rendering  the  venerable  bishop 
highly  respected  and  of  giving  him  considerable  in- 
fluence, even  among  the  Protestants  themselves,  as 
was  evidenced  on  several  important  occasions.  When 
Monsignor  Falconio,  the  apostolic  delegate  to  the  Do- 
minion, arrived  in  Quebec  in  1899,  he  was  surprised 
by  the  grandeur  of  the  reception  which  was  accorded 
him.  At  the  dock  to  meet  him  were  the  civil  and 
religious  authorities,  the  lieutenant-governor  and  the 
vicar  general  of  the  archbishop,  accompanied  by  two 
hundred  priests  and  monks,  and  a  large  concourse  of 
citizens.  As  soon  as  he  had  landed,  the  delegate 
blessed  the  multitude  and  was  then  welcomed  by  the 
authorities ;  and,  followed  by  a  throng,  all  started  for 
the  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  the  buildings  along  the 
line  of  march  being  profusely  decorated  with  flags 
made  of  the  Pontifical  colors  and  with  Sacred  Heart 
pennons.  The  delegate  was  received  at  the  entrance 
to  the  church  by  Monsignor  Beqin,  Archbishop  of 
Quebec;  the  letter  instituting  him  delegate  was  read 
at  the  altar  and  then  a  grand  religious  ceremony  fol- 
lowed. 

Here  is  another  striking  example  of  the  high  esteem 

shown  for  the  Church  in  this  part  of  the  world.     Some 

ten  years  ago,  the  workmen  of  the  Quebec  region  of 

Canada  engaged  in  the  leather  industries  went  on  a 

is  263 


THE  VATICAN 

strike.    Wiser  and  better  inspired  than  is  generally 
the  case  in  most  parts  of  the  Old  World,  the  owners 
of  the  tanneries*  et  cetera,  requested  the  Catholic 
archbishop  to  arbitrate  the  differences.     This  deli- 
cate task  was  promptly  acrrptr<L    Monsignor  Beqin 
had  to  guide  him  the  principles  so  admirably  f  ormu- 
lated  m  the  Encyclical  "Bermm  \0carmm.*'    In  fad; 
it  was  by  following  the  rules  and  directions  laid  down 
by  Leo  XIII,  that  Archbishop  Beqin  formulated  his 
own  judgments,  which  may  be  given  here  as  a  model 
in  inalU  •  \  of  this  kind  and  as  a  fine  example  of  the 
wide  scope  of  the  Catholic  organization,  which  thus 
embraces  ^••••••al  as  well  as  mundane  affairs.     The 

text  of  the  archbishop's  decision  and  recommendations 
ran  is 


"I  BKMC  eo^aHy  examined  the  constitntions  and  by-laws 
of  the  •hotHBker  and  Leather  unions,  which.  I  cannot  approve 
of  wins  they  undergo   a  certain  number  of  modifications. 
If  •  ind  clauses  which  I  find  open  to  criticisin. 

woe  enforced  to  fae  Htm.  it  is  certain  that  in  many  cases 
Ikey  woaid  •fi»ge  OB  personal  Efaerty.  liberty  of  conscience 

To  VEct  the  o^ffcnlties  and  iacoiiTen- 
:  :t  en  the  ftatemen'^   -11  :"/-:  ::•:  _._i:r""-  ~.~.:-.~ 
-^.-•i  ':>^.~   BRKBied  b   ••   by  the  BMHhn   ud  workmen,  I. 
m.  my  tfmSkj-  as  aibflgar  dbaooi  by  the  two  interested  parties, 
follows  as  a  plan  for  the  settlement  of  all 
occxrr  in  the  future  concerning  the  ang- 
OKidUBf  of  wsgtsiy  the  hiTTTtg  or  <ii>" 
of  •wodbBBBy  tile  **••••••  of  hours  of  labor,  all  matters 

ffce  i*rooWtiaB  of  new  machrnery,  apprentices, 
•1  *»y  ottWr  ciBses  of  dispote. 
"Commit* f**  0f  CamfUmt*  mi  ComtXcticm.     IB  order  to 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

settle  differences  promptly  and,  so  far  as  possible,  privately, 
the  workmen  will  form  a  Committee  of  Complaints,  composed 
of  three  members  named  by  them.  The  masters,  on  tbeir 
part  will  name  a  Committee  of  Conciliation  made  up  of  three 
manufacturers  selected  by  them.  The  members  of  these  two 
committees  will  be  elected  every  year,  and  may  be  reelected. 
In  case  one  of  the  members  of  the  said  committees  should 
be  prevented  by  some  grave  cause  from  performing  his  duties, 
the  committee  to  which  he  belongs  will  choose  some  one  else 
to  serve  temporarily  in  his  place.  If  one  of  the  members 
should  die,  the  committee  will  select  another  in  his  stead  for 
the  rest  of  the  year. 

"When  a  workman  has  a  complaint  to  make  against  a 
master,  he  will  put  it  in  writing,  win  have  it  signed  by 
two  of  his  companions  and  wiQ  send  it  to  the  Committee 
of  Complaints,  with  the  request  that  it  be  transmitted  to 
the  Committee  of  Conciliation.  Then  the  members  of  these 
two  committees  will  examine,  conjointly,  the  case  in  hand, 
and  endeavor  to  bring  about  an  understanding.  But  if  this 
is  impossible,  the  Committee  of  Complaints  will  immediately 
carry  the  case  before  an  Arbitration  Tribunal. 

"When  the  complaint  comes  from  a  manufacturer,  he 
should  address  himself  directly  to  the  Committee  of  Concilia- 
tion, which  will  immediately  inform  the  Committee  of  Com- 
plaints of  the  masters  communication,  and  will  strive  to 
bring  about  an  arrangement.  But  if  this  is  impossible,  the 
Committee  of  Conciliation  wiH  refer  the  matter  to  an  Arbi- 
tration Tribunal. 

"The  Arbitration  Court.  This  tribunal  will  be  permanent 
and  be  composed  of  three  members,  one  of  whom,  represent- 
ing the  masters,  will  be  chosen  by  the  aforesaid  Committee 
of  Conciliation :  the  second  member,  representing  the  work- 
men, wfll  be  chosen  by  the  aforesaid  Committee  of  Com- 

£65 


THE  VATICAN 

strike.  Wiser  and  better  inspired  than  is  generally 
the  case  in  most  parts  of  the  Old  World,  the  owners 
of  the  tanneries,  et  cetera,  requested  the  Catholic 
archbishop  to  arbitrate  the  differences.  This  deli- 
cate task  was  promptly  accepted.  Monsignor  Beqin 
had  to  guide  him  the  principles  so  admirably  formu- 
lated in  the  Encyclical  "Rerum  Novarum"  In  fact, 
it  was  by  following  the  rules  and  directions  laid  down 
by  Leo  XIII,  that  Archbishop  Beqin  formulated  his 
own  judgments,  which  may  be  given  here  as  a  model 
in  matters  of  this  kind  and  as  a  fine  example  of  the 
wide  scope  of  the  Catholic  organization,  which  thus 
embraces  spiritual  as  well  as  mundane  affairs.  The 
text  of  the  archbishop's  decision  and  recommendations 
runs  as  follows : 

"I  have  carefully  examined  the  constitutions  and  by-laws 
of  the  shoemaker  and  leather  unions,  which  I  cannot  approve 
of  unless  they  undergo  a  certain  number  of  modifications. 
If  the  articles  and  clauses  which  I  find  open  to  criticism, 
were  enforced  to  the  letter,  it  is  certain  that  in  many  cases 
they  would  infringe  on  personal  liberty,  liberty  of  conscience 
and  justice  in  general.  To  meet  the  difficulties  and  inconven- 
iences pointed  out  in  the  statements  and  other  documents  that 
have  been  presented  to  me  by  the  masters  and  workmen,  I, 
in  my  quality  as  arbiter  chosen  by  the  two  interested  parties, 
do  establish  what  follows  as  a  plan  for  the  settlement  of  all 
disputes  which  may  occur  in  the  future  concerning  the  aug- 
mentation or  the  diminishing  of  wages,  the  hiring  or  dismiss- 
ing of  workmen,  the  duration  of  hours  of  labor,  all  matters 
concerning  the  introduction  of  new  machinery,  apprentices, 
and  any  other  causes  of  dispute. 

"Committees  of  Complaints  and  Conciliation.  In  order  to 

264 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

settle  differences  promptly  and,  so  far  as  possible,  privately, 
the  workmen  will  form  a  Committee  of  Complaints,  composed 
of  three  members  named  by  them.  The  masters,  on  their 
part  will  name  a  Committee  of  Conciliation  made  up  of  three 
manufacturers  selected  by  them.  The  members  of  these  two 
committees  will  be  elected  every  year,  and  may  be  reflected. 
In  case  one  of  the  members  of  the  said  committees  should 
be  prevented  by  some  grave  cause  from  performing  his  duties, 
the  committee  to  which  he  belongs  will  choose  some  one  else 
to  serve  temporarily  in  his  place.  If  one  of  the  members 
should  die,  the  committee  will  select  another  in  his  stead  for 
the  rest  of  the  year. 

"When  a  workman  has  a  complaint  to  make  against  a 
master,  he  will  put  it  in  writing,  will  have  it  signed  by 
two  of  his  companions  and  will  send  it  to  the  Committee 
of  Complaints,  with  the  request  that  it  be  transmitted  to 
the  Committee  of  Conciliation.  Then  the  members  of  these 
two  committees  will  examine,  conjointly,  the  case  in  hand, 
and  endeavor  to  bring  about  an  understanding.  But  if  this 
is  impossible,  the  Committee  of  Complaints  will  immediately 
carry  the  case  before  an  Arbitration  Tribunal. 

"When  the  complaint  comes  from  a  manufacturer,  he 
should  address  himself  directly  to  the  Committee  of  Concilia- 
tion, which  will  immediately  inform  the  Committee  of  Com- 
plaints of  the  master's  communication,  and  will  strive  to 
bring  about  an  arrangement.  But  if  this  is  impossible,  the 
Committee  of  Conciliation  will  refer  the  matter  to  an  Arbi- 
tration Tribunal. 

"The  Arbitration  Court.  This  tribunal  will  be  permanent 
and  be  composed  of  three  members,  one  of  whom,  represent- 
ing the  masters,  will  be  chosen  by  the  aforesaid  Committee 
of  Conciliation ;  the  second  member,  representing  the  work- 
men, will  be  chosen  by  the  aforesaid  Committee  of  Com- 

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THE  VATICAN 

plaints,  and  the  third  member  will  be  named  by  the  two 
arbiters  just  mentioned.  If  it  should  happen  that  these  two 
arbiters  cannot  agree  on  the  third,  they  will  request  that  he 
be  named  by  the  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  or  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Quebec. 

"The  election  of  these  judges  will  take  place  every  year 
and  they  are  eligible  for  reelection.  In  case  one  of  the  ar- 
biters be  prevented  by  sickness  or  other  grave  reasons,  or 
because  he  is  personally  interested  in  the  matter  that  is  to 
be  arbitrated,  from  performing  the  duties,  the  committee 
which  chose  him  will  name  a  temporary  substitute.  If  one 
of  the  arbiters  should  die,  the  committee  which  chose  him 
will  name  his  successor  for  the  rest  of  the  year. 

"If  possible,  the  arbiters  will  have  appear  before  them 
the  parties  in  the  case  or  their  representatives ;  they  may  call 
for  all  the  papers  bearing  on  the  subject  before  them,  cite 
witnesses,  bring  in  experts  and  artisans,  accept  affidavits, 
visit  workshops,  and,  in  a  word,  obtain  any  written  or  oral 
information  which  can  throw  light  on  the  question  submitted 
to  them  for  arbitration.  They  should  give  their  decision 
with  as  little  delay  as  possible,  and  this  decision  will  be  final. 
As  long  as  the  matter  is  under  examination,  the  master  may 
not  close  his  shop  or  the  workmen  cease  work.  The  arbiters 
may  have  a  secretary  of  their  own  choosing  and  the  cost  of 
the  case  will  be  borne  by  the  condemned  party  or  by  all  the 
parties  concerned,  at  the  discretion  of  the  arbiters. 

"The  establishment  of  such  a  tribunal  of  arbitration  is  in 
conformity  with  the  directions  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff 
Leo  XIII  as  set  forth  in  his  encyclical  on  this  subject,  in 
which  he  says,  among  other  things:  'Let  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  masters  be  perfectly  conciliated  with  the  rights 
and  duties  of  the  workmen,'  and  if  one  or  the  other  of  the 
two  parties  complains  that  these  rights  are  infringed  upon, 

266 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

he  may  express  the  desire  that  there  be  chosen  prudent  and 
upright  men  who  shall  be  charged  'with  settling  the  dispute, 
as  arbiters  thereof.'  By  proceeding  in  this  manner,  the 
rights  of  each  party  will  be  respected  and  the  relations  be- 
tween employers  and  employes  will  never  cease  to  be  amica- 
ble. In  fact  it  is  from  a  spirit  of  justice  and  Christian 
charity  that  society  may  hope  for  peace  and  prosperity." 

The  effect  produced  by  this  action  of  the  bishop 
was  most  excellent.  Both  Protestants  and  Catholics 
were  satisfied  and  accepted  the  bishop's  view.  The 
Vatican  was  especially  pleased  at  the  outcome  of  this 
admirable  effort  to  improve  the  relations  between 
capital  and  labor. 

A  very  interesting  portion  of  the  population  of 
Canada,  that  of  Acadia  or  Nova  Scotia,  is  made  up 
of  the  descendants  of  the  early  French  colonists,  who 
are  models  of  fidelity  to  their  traditions  and  native 
language,  though,  at  the  same  time,  loyal  subjects  of 
the  Dominion.  This  region,  as  has  just  been  said,  is 
also  called  Nova  Scotia,  because  a  little  colony  of 
Scotchmen  settled  there  in  1622.  Though  the  Aca- 
dians  form  the  majority  of  the  population  in  certain 
dioceses,  as  in  Chatham,  for  instance,  they  have  never 
seen  a  priest  of  their  nationality  elevated  to  the  epis- 
copal dignity,  and  the  Acadian  parishes  are  filled  with 
Irish  and  Scotch  priests.  They  have  often  protested 
against  this  ostracism  and  refuse  to  be  Anglicized. 
Hence  arise  many  causes  of  dissension,  some  of  them 
a  hundred  years  old.  But  these  faithful  Acadians 
are  not  at  all  inclined  to  refuse  to  recognize  episcopal 
authority;  they  have  simply  submitted  their  com- 

267* 


THE  VATICAN 

plaints  to  the  apostolic  delegate,  calling  his  attention 
to  inconveniences  arising  from  the  handing  over  of  a 
French  population  to  a  body  of  priests  who  do  not 
know  the  French  language.  But  these  differences 
are  but  trifles,  and  Canada,  as  a  whole,  is  a  source 
of  nothing  but  great  satisfaction  to  the  Vatican. 

Great  results  for  the  religious  future  of  Canada 
are  expected  to  spring  from  the  National  Catholic 
Council  held  in  Quebec  in  September,  1909,  under 
the  presidency  of  Monsignor  Sbarretti,  delegate  apos- 
tolic. This  was  the  first  plenary  council  of  the 
Church  of  Canada,  and  it  was  attended  by  eight  arch- 
bishops, twenty-one  bishops  and  five  vicars  apostolic, 
all  busily  engaged  in  examining  the  questions  which 
interested  their  various  dioceses. 

CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA 

The  religious  situation  in  South  America  resembles 
in  no  respect  that  of  the  United  States.  Sprung 
from  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonization,  the  South 
American  republics  are  very  Catholic  even  though 
their  people  may,  at  times,  become  very  superstitious, 
as  was  shown  by  the  temporary  success  in  Brazil,  in 
1897,  of  the  false  Messiah,  Conseilheiro.  The  Catho- 
lic hierarchy  has  long  been  well  organized  in  that  part 
of  the  world.  The  number  of  archbishops  and  bishops 
is  considerable,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Monsignor  Arcoverde  de  Albuquerque  Cavalcanti,  is 
a  cardinal.  Yet,  the  governments  of  these  republics, 
taken  together,  are  far  from  being  always  favorable 
to  the  Church.  The  activity  of  the  secret  societies 

268 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

and  free  thinkers,  who  are  for  the  most  part  disciples 
of  Comte's  positive  philosophy,  is  very  marked  in 
South  America,  and  they  often  succeed  in  putting  in 
power  persons  who  are  openly  hostile  to  the  Church. 
Consequently  the  peace  of  the  Church  is  often  dis- 
turbed in  different  parts  of  the  continent,  much  to 
the  regret  of  the  Vatican,  and  the  good  works  of  the 
Catholic  organization  is  greatly  checked,  until  the 
day  when  a  wiser  government  succeeds  the  fanatical 
one  and  the  Church  regains  her  old  liberty  and  privi- 
leges. This  changeable  existence  is  in  itself  harmful, 
causes  an  incoherence  in  the  religious  policy  of  the 
state,  and,  in  moments  of  political  crises,  breaks  off 
relations  with  the  Holy  See,  which  are  renewed  when 
peace  comes.  This  has  been  the  condition  of  late 
years  in  Ecuador,  Chili  and  Brazil.  At  the  present 
moment,  the  Vatican  has  nuncios  or  delegates  apos- 
tolic in  Brazil,  Chili,  Colombia,  Central  America, 
Ecuador,  Bolivia,  Peru,  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay. 

From  May  28  to  July  9,  1898,  a  council  of  the 
bishops  of  Latin  America  convoked  by  the  Pope  was 
held  at  Rome.  The  Eternal  City  had  not  seen  a  re- 
union of  this  kind  since  the  unhappy  dispersion  of 
the  Vatican  Council  in  1870.  Of  course,  on  this  oc- 
casion it  was  not  the  meeting  of  an  ecumenical  council. 
But  this  assemblage  of  53  bishops  representing  the 
episcopate  of  all  Latin  America  had  a  high  signifi- 
cance, both  because  of  the  number  of  ecclesiastics  who 
attended,  the  importance  of  the  subjects  discussed, 
the  good  results  expected  therefrom  and  the  marked 

269 


THE  VATICAN 

proof  of  love  and  attachment  for  the  Holy  See  shown 
by  South  America.  This  comes  out  clearly  and 
touchingly  in  the  following  passage  from  the  letter 
of  Leo  XIII  convoking  the  council:  "We  left  to 
you  the  choice  of  the  place  in  which  this  council  should 
be  held,  and  you  yourselves  chose  Rome,  a  great  proof 
of  your  affection  for  the  Apostolic  See."  The  Sov- 
ereign Pontiff  then  went  on  to  express  his  satisfaction 
at  seeing  finally  realized  a  project  which  he  had  con- 
ceived at  the  time  of  the  celebration  of  the  fourth 
centenary  of  the  discovery  of  America  and  from  which 
he  hopes  may  come  the  greatest  good  for  the  Latin 
world,  "which  covers  more  than  half  of  the  western 
hemisphere."  "Reunions  of  this  kind,"  His  Holiness 
then  went  on  to  say,  "draw  more  closely  together  na- 
tions that  are  of  the  same  family  or  races  very  closely 
allied,  and  maintain  among  them  the  unity  of  ecclesi- 
astical discipline,  true  Christian  habits  and  a  spirit  of 
concord  among  all  good  men." 

The  meetings  were  held  in  the  Pio-Latino- Ameri- 
cano College,  where  the  Jesuits  educate  the  future 
South  American  priests.  The  bishops  asked  the 
Holy  Father  to  designate  a  cardinal  who  should  act 
as  their  chairman  during  the  sittings;  but  the  Pope, 
in  order  to  leave  them  greater  liberty,  preferred  that 
they  should  choose  their  own  presiding  officer.  It 
was  finally  decided  that  each  of  the  archbishops  should 
preside  in  turn  and  that  the  duration  of  each  chair- 
manship should  extend  from  Sunday  to  Wednesday, 
or  from  Thursday  to  Saturday.  Each  of  the  regular 
sittings  had  as  honorary  chairman  a  Prince  of  the 

270 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

Church.  The  preliminary  sitting  was  immediately 
followed  by  a  Mass,  and  this  custom  was  continued 
for  over  a  month.  A  cardinal  sat  on  his  throne  in  the 
choir  during  this  Mass,  which  was  said  by  one  of  the 
South  American  bishops.  On  three  sides  of  the 
chapel,  which  was  richly  decorated  by  the  employes 
of  the  Vatican,  sat  the  bishops  in  rows,  in  cope  and 
mitre,  with  their  secretaries  behind  them.  In  the  sec- 
ond row  were  the  minor  members  of  the  council, — 
three  theological  and  canonical  counselors  of  the  Holy 
Office,  twelve  notaries,  et  cetera.  In  the  center  of  the 
square  were  the  students  of  the  college,  representing 
the  future  hopes  of  the  South  American  Church.  In 
order  to  add  to  the  solemnity  of  the  first  sitting,  the 
Pope  sent  the  choir  of  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  with  the 
celebrated  Abbe  Perosi  at  its  head,  who,  on  that  occa- 
sion, assumed  for  the  first  time  his  new  function  as 
chief.  The  soul  of  the  congress  was  one  of  the  coun- 
selors, Father  Joseph  Calasauz,  a  Capuchin,  today 
Cardinal  Vives  y  Tuto.  He  had  been  prepared  for 
this  part  by  his  long  sojourn  in  South  America,  and 
he  astonished  the  members  of  the  congress  by  his 
prodigious  memory  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  law 
and  canonical  jurisprudence  and  won  their  affection 
and  admiration  by  his  great  good  sense  and  the  ardor 
of  his  apostolic  soul.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  dur- 
ing the  sittings  of  the  congress,  and  thereupon,  the 
members  requested  the  Pope  to  allow  him  to  be  their 
honorary  presiding  officer  to  the  end  of  the  conference. 
The  proceedings  of  the  congress  were  carried  on 
with  much  order  and  in  an  admirable  spirit  of  har- 

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THE  VATICAN 

mony.  In  fact,  there  was  but  one  slight  jar,  which 
was  quickly  quieted,  and  which  is  mentioned  here  to 
show  with  what  difficulties  the  Vatican  is  always  sur- 
rounded. The  correspondent  of  a  leading  New  York 
paper  reported  that  there  was  friction  between  a 
group  of  bishops  who  leaned  towards  Americanism 
and  another  group  who  were  more  friendly  to  Latin- 
ism.  The  correspondent  produced  a  pretended  con- 
versation which  he  had  had  with  the  Bishop  of  Bogota, 
who  was  the  guest  of  Monsignor  O'Connell,  ex-rector 
of  the  North  American  College ;  but  the  bishop  stoutly 
denied  the  conversation  and  even  declared  that  he  had 
never  seen  the  journalist  in  question.  This  incident 
offers  a  good  example  of  the  policy  approved  by  the 
Vatican,  for  prelates  not  to  speak  with  journalists  and 
always  to  avoid  the  publicity  of  the  newspapers. 

The  most  important  fact  in  the  history  of  this 
memorable  congress  was  the  examination,  the  discus- 
sion and,  in  most  cases,  the  passage  of  eleven  hundred 
decrees,  which  form  the  most  precious  collection  in 
existence  of  canon  law  as  applied  to  the  distant  peo- 
ples of  the  New  World.  Another  memorable  inci- 
dent of  the  meeting  was  the  closing  session,  which 
was  presided  over  by  Cardinal  di  Pietro  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  general  reception  by  the  Pope  of  the  whole 
body  of  bishops,  who  had  previously  been  received 
singly  and  in  private.  His  Holiness  had  a  kind  word 
for  each  and  embraced  each  at  parting.  And  thus 
ended  this  plenary  council  of  Latin  America,  one  of 
the  most  important  acts  -in  the  religious  history  of 
those  vast  lands,  and  a  most  striking  example  of  the 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

tact,  broad-mindedness  and  wide  influence  of  the  Vati- 
can. 

The  difficulties  which  the  Church  encounters  in 
these  South  American  countries  has  already  been 
touched  upon.  The  keenness  of  the  struggle  between 
Catholics  and  the  partisans  of  the  secret  societies  or 
positivism  has  often  been  the  occasion  in  South  Amer- 
ica for  superb  manifestations  of  fidelity  to  the  Church. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  debate  a  few  years  ago  in  the 
Lower  House  of  the  Chilian  legislature  over  the 
Church  budget,  when  an  anti-clerical  member,  Senor 
Pleitado,  seized  the  occasion  to  make  a  violent  speech 
against  the  idea  of  God,  religions  in  general  and  their 
ministers.  Thereupon,  a  Catholic  member,  Senor 
Macaria  Ossa,  eloquently  protested  against  these 
words  and  closed  his  much-applauded  speech  as  fol- 
lows: "I  adore  Jesus  Christ  and  I  proclaim  Him 
King  and  Lord  of  all  that  exists  and  Sovereign  of 
the  nation."  The  courageous  orator  was  warmly  re- 
ceived by  the  people  of  Santiago  when  he  left  the 
capitol,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Santiago  sent  him  a 
public  letter  of  felicitation  and  a  gold  reliquary  en- 
riched with  precious  stones. 

Here  is  another  example  of  Catholic  fervor  in  high 
places  in  South  America.  When  that  eminent  diplo- 
mat, Monsignor  Vico,  now  cardinal,  presented  his 
credentials  as  delegate  apostolic  to  Colombia,  the 
president,  Senor  Michel  Caro,  spoke  of  his  ardent 
Catholic  faith  and  congratulated  himself  on  the  fact 
that  Colombia  rejoiced  "in  the  inestimable  benefit  of 
the  unity  of  the  faith,"  and  called  attention  to  the  fact 

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THE  VATICAN 

that  "state  public  instruction  is  placed  under  the  in- 
spection of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  everything 
concerning  faith  and  morals,  and  that  in  all  the  states 
of  the  republic,  a  large  part  of  the  education  is  given 
by  the  Catholic  institutes  and  the  teaching  bodies  of 
the  congregations." 

The  Italian  governmental  sheets,  the  newspapers 
opposed  to  the  Vatican,  were  struck  by  the  courteous 
manner  in  which  the  representative  of  the  Pope  was 
received  in  Colombia  at  the  time  of  the  Italian-Colom- 
bian imbroglio, — which  fact  offers  the  best  argument 
in  favor  of  the  contention  of  the  Vatican  that  the 
Holy  See  should  be  quite  independent  of  any  tem- 
poral power,  that  is,  that  the  Italian  government 
should  have  no  authority  whatsoever  over  the  Pope. 

After  the  revolution  in  Brazil  and  the  formation 
of  a  republic  in  that  country,  there  was  a  period  when 
the  religious  relations  between  Rome  and  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro were  very  strained.  The  Positivists,  who  had 
control  of  affairs,  broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with 
the  Holy  See  and  brought  about  the  separation  be- 
tween Church  and  state.  But  the  Brazilian  republic 
was  more  just  than  the  French  republic  in  this  mat- 
ter. The  Brazilians  did  not  seize  Church  property 
and  did  not  pass  special  laws  against  monks  and  the 
clergy.  In  fact,  the  successors  of  the  first  and  more 
aggressive  body  of  politicians  have  grown  wiser  in 
their  relations  with  the  Church,  and  Brazil  now  lives 
on  good  terms  with  Rome.  In  fact,  the  government 
has  asked  that  the  Pope  send  Brazil  a  nuncio.  This 
was  done  in  the  person  of  Monsignor  Bavona,  Arch- 

274. 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

bishop  of  Pharsala,  who  was  formerly  delegate  apos- 
tolic to  Ecuador,  and  has  since  died  as  nuncio  at 
Vienna. 

There  was  a  time  when  ecclesiastical  discipline  and 
the  morals  of  the  clergy  left  much  to  be  desired  in 
South  America.  But,  thanks  to  the  untiring  efforts 
of  the  episcopacy  in  the  various  states,  well  seconded 
by  the  authorities  of  the  Vatican,  the  condition  of 
things  is  greatly  improved  today.  The  advent  of  the 
monks  and  nuns  exiled  from  France  and  the  Salesians 
coming  from  Italy  have  exercised  a  happy  influence 
on  the  clergy.  Though  Freemasonry  is  still  powerful 
in  Brazil,  the  rising  generations  count  among  them 
many  good  and  faithful  Christians,  and  the  future, 
after  violent  political  and  religious  dissensions,  an- 
nounces an  era  of  prosperity  and  peace. 

TURKEY 

The  Catholics  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  do  not  all 
belong  to  the  same  rite,  being  distributed  among  the 
Latins,  United  Greeks,  Copts,  especially  in  Egypt, 
Armenians,  Maronites,  and  several  other  little  Chris- 
tian communities.  Each  one  of  these  religious  divi- 
sions corresponds  to  a  different  nationality  and  is 
governed  by  a  patriarch,  who  is  both  their  spiritual 
and  civil  chief,  and  who  consequently  receives  from  the 
Sultan  a  sort  of  investiture  after  his  canonical  investi- 
ture at  the  hands  of  the  Pope. 

It  is  a  well-known  historical  fact  that  the  Turks 
have  always  repelled  fusion  with  peoples  who  do  not 
profess  Islamism.  In  fact,  the  Turk  is  prohibited 

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THE  VATICAN 

from  organizing  and  directing  an  administration 
based  on  other  principles  than  those  inculcated  by  the 
Koran;  and  this  interdiction  fell  in  perfectly  with 
their  legendary  indolence  in  everything  pertaining  to 
administrative  affairs  and  with  their  slight  respect  for 
the  rights  and  interests  of  the  rayas.  Consequently, 
the  Sultans  found  it  much  more  simple  to  hand  over 
to  the  different  patriarchs  all  temporal  power  over  the 
Christians  in  their  respective  jurisdictions.  But  in 
thus  making  the  patriarchs  the  absolute  masters  of 
the  lot  of  their  co-religionists,  the  Sultan  made  them 
responsible  for  the  general  conduct  of  these  co-re- 
ligionists and  for  all  their  obligations  and  duties 
towards  the  government.  Much  can  be  said  as  to  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  system,  a  state 
of  things  that  is  unknown  in  occidental  countries. 

One  of  the  largest  and  unquestionably  one  of  the 
most  interesting  parts  of  the  United  Greek  Church 
is  that  established  in  Syria  and  Lower  Egypt,  and 
consequently  in  the  very  regions  where  Christianity 
flourished  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles  themselves. 
These  regions  correspond  to  a  part  of  the  old  patri- 
archates of  Antioch,  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem. 
The  uninterrupted  history  of  Catholicism  in  those 
three  patriarchates  is  still  to  be  written,  and,  for  many 
reasons,  would  be  exceedingly  interesting.  But  can 
this  history  ever  be  written?  Probably  not.  The 
innumerable  and  terrible  invasions  which  have  ravaged 
Egypt  and  Syria,  the  disgraceful  Turkish  domination, 
the  not  less  terrible  perturbations  caused  by  the  great 
heresies,  and,  later,  because  of  the  schism,  the  almost 

276 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

complete  cessation,  during  a  very  long  period,  of  any 
relations  with  Rome  and  with  western  civilization  in 
general, — all  these  things  have  destroyed  in  those  un- 
fortunate countries  most  of  the  historical  documents 
Jeft  by  Christian  antiquity  and  have  prevented  the 
production  of  new  ones.  Consequently,  we  scarcely 
know  and  probably  never  will  know  what  was  the 
religious  condition  of  a  long  series  of  Christian  gener- 
ations who  lived  there  plunged  in  a  most  lamentable 
state  of  misery  and  ignorance. 

A  very  decided  return  to  Catholic  unity  is  notice- 
able in  the  Coptic  Church  since  Leo  XIII  reestab- 
lished the  ancient  patriarchal  unity.  The  Copts, 
found  especially  among  the  natives  of  Upper  Egypt, 
who  lived  scattered  and  schismatically,  were  kept  away 
from  Rome  through  fear  of  losing  their  nationality 
if  they  became  Roman  Catholics.  But  they  soon  per- 
ceived that  this  was  not  the  Pope's  aim;  he  was  quite 
ready  that  they  should  guard  intact  their  nationality, 
as  well  as  their  rites.  These  Catholics  are  not  what 
we  have  been  led  to  think.  They  said  to  themselves, 
"We,  too,  were  formerly  Catholics,  and  our  great 
saints,  Paul,  Anthony  and  Cyril,  were  likewise  Catho- 
lics ;  so  by  becoming  Catholics,  we  will  not  cease  to  be 
Copts." 

The  most  unfortunate  and  most  persecuted  of  the 
oriental  Churches,  even  within  very  recent  years,  has 
been  the  Armenian.  Xo  one  can  forget  the  horrible 
massacres  of  the  Armenians  by  the  Turks, — the  most 
ferocious  of  Turks,  the  Druses  and  the  Kurds,  on  the 
pretext  that  the  Armenians  meant  to  revolt  against 

277 


THE  VATICAN 

the  Sultan's  rule  and  to  establish  a  republic,  with  the 
pretended  support  of  some  western  Power.  Rivers 
of  blood  and  tears  were  the  consequence.  By  this  foul 
action,  the  Turks  showed  that  they  were  far  below 
the  level  of  modern  civilization,  though,  it  must  be 
admitted  to  their  shame,  that  the  accomplices  of  their 
crimes  were  European  Powers  who  pride  themselves 
on  their  lofty  culture  and  their  broad  humanitarian- 
ism.  Not  one  of  them  dared  come  forward  to  stop 
these  horribly  savage  deeds,  giving  as  a  reason  that 
no  one  should  interfere  in  the  home  affairs  of  another 
nation,  as  if,  the  moment  their  own  selfish  interests 
commanded  it,  these  same  nations  did  not  intermeddle 
in  the  interior  matters  of  colonial  peoples  in  order  to 
enlarge  boundaries  by  unjustifiable  acts. 

The  Vatican  has  a  right  to  be  proud  of  the  part 
which  its  subordinates  played  at  this  tragic  moment. 
After  these  terrible  disasters,  the  Catholic  Armenian 
patriarchate  was  able,  with  generous  aid  from  the 
west,  chiefly  from  Rome  and  France,  and  by  con- 
tinuous labor  on  its  own  part,  to  lift  up  the  unfortu- 
nate nation  from  a  state  of  ruin  to  which  history  pre- 
sents no  parallel  since  the  days  of  Genghis  Khan. 
All  the  facts  bearing  on  this  revolting  episode  and  the 
admirable  relief  work  which  followed  are  found  in  a 
report  addressed  by  Monsignor  Azarian  to  Monsignor 
Charmetant,  the  original  of  which  is  deposited  in  the 
archives  of  the  Vatican.-  An  abridgment  of  the  sad 
story  is  given  below. 

In  the  first  place,  it  was  necessary  to  feed  the  starv- 
ing population  and  furnish  them  with  clothes  and 

278 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

shelter.  The  churches  and  schools  were  sacked  and 
often  utterly  destroyed,  so  that  much  money  had  to 
be  spent  in  rebuilding  or  restoring  these  edifices,  in 
order  that  religious  exercises  could  be  held  once  more 
and  the  education  of  the  children  be  continued.  "The 
lack  of  funds,"  says  the  writer,  "those  we  had  being 
required  for  more  pressing  material  needs,  has  per- 
mitted us  to  erect  scarcely  more  than  modest  sheds 
where  once  stood  sacred  edifices,  now  crumbled  to 
pieces  or  burned  to  the  ground."  For  those  refugees 
who  could  work,  the  patriarch  furnished  the  necessary 
tools  and  implements;  and  to  those  who,  terrified  by 
the  danger,  had  fled  to  foreign  parts,  money  was  given 
for  their  repatriation, — a  very  costly  proceeding. 
Another  large  sum  was  necessary  to  rebuild  the  homes 
of  the  missionary  monks  and  nuns.  Then  there  were 
the  thousands  of  orphans  of  both  sexes,  uncared  for 
and  dying  of  hunger,  for  whom  a  home  was  built  at 
Constantinople.  In  this  relief  work,  no  distinction 
was  made  on  account  of  religion,  though  the  Protes- 
tant missionaries,  provided  with  considerable  money, 
did  not  hesitate  to  seize  the  occasion,  and  often  with 
success,  of  mingling  proselytism  with  their  charity. 
"But,  thank  heaven,"  says  His  Beatitude,  "not  a  sin- 
gle Armenian  Catholic  has  so  far  been  won  over." 
Since  this  terrible  massacre,  a  state  of  relative  peace 
has  existed  and  the  political  revolution  which  occurred 
in  Turkey  a  few  years  ago  gave  ground  to  hope  that 
the  Young  Turks,  now  in  power,  would  put  an  end  to 
these  crimes.  But  such  has  not  been  the  case.  Their 
old  enemies  have  again  pounced  upon  the  defenseless 
19  279 


THE  VATICAN 

Armenians,  with  the  result  that  40,000  dead  are  men- 
tioned, though  the  Turkish  government  admits  "but 
4,000,"  which,  however,  is  a  terribly  large  figure  as  it 
stands.  It  should  be  added  that  this  time  the  Con- 
stantinople parliament  was  moved,  ordered  an  investi- 
gation and  severe  punishment  for  the  guilty  ones,  and 
also  voted  an  appropriation  for  the  sufferers.  The 
future  will  tell  us  whether  these  tardy  measures  are 
adequate  amends  for  all  that  poor  Armenia  has  suf- 
fered. 

These  abominable  massacres  were  the  occasion,  as 
always  happens,  of  heroic  acts  on  the  part  of  Catholic 
missionaries.  An  account  of  one  of  these  may  be 
given  here  as  a  sample  of  all.  In  one  of  the  buildings 
belonging  to  the  French  Jesuit  Fathers  were  gathered 
together  nearly  seven  thousand  Armenian  fugitives. 
The  Father  Superior  was  temporarily  absent,  and  his 
place  was  taken  by  Fathers  Sabathier  and  Rigal. 
Notwithstanding  the  terrible  risks,  they  did  not  hesi- 
tate an  instant  to  throw  wide  their  doors  to  the  fleeing 
victims.  A  little  farther  away  were  three  thousand 
more  gathered  in  the  nunnery  of  the  same  order.  The 
Fathers  were  exceedingly  anxious  about  these  Sis- 
ters, for  while  they  knew  that  their  own  building  was 
strong  enough  to  withstand  an  attack,  such  was  not 
the  case  with  the  more  fragile  structure  of  the  Sisters' 
home.  Consequently,  Father  Sabathier  decided  to  go 
immediately  to  their  aid.  Partially  disguised,  he 
went  forth  into  the  dangerous  streets,  where  bullets 
were  flying  in  every  direction,  and  before  he  finished 
his  journey  he  had  been  wounded  in  the  right  side. 

280 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

When  he  arrived,  he  found  the  house  behind  that  of 
the  sisters  in  flames  which  were  already  beginning  to 
attack  their  home.  Two  hours  later,  Father  Rigal 
followed  Father  Sabathier.  By  a  miracle,  he  reached 
there  in  safety  at  the  very  moment  when  the  assault 
was  the  most  violent  and  when  it  was  decided  to  trans- 
fer the  terrified  refugees  to  the  stronger  edifice  of  the 
monks.  So  the  twenty-five  Sisters  and  the  two 
monks,  forming  a  living  rampart  around  the  trembling 
Armenians,  led  them  through  this  blood-thirsty  and 
armed  mob.  The  march  lasted  a  long  hour.  More 
than  fifteen  times  the  fleeing  column  was  stopped  by 
the  cruel  fanatics  and  broken  into  parts,  which  were 
brought  together  again  with  the  greatest  difficulty. 
Every  now  and  then  some  unfortunate  would  fall, 
pierced  by  a  ball.  Nine  were  thus  killed  before  the 
building  of  the  Fathers  was  reached.  Such  is,  briefly 
told,  the  story  of  the  heroism  of  this  handful  of  Catho- 
lic missionaries  of  both  sexes ;  and  similar  stories  might 
be  related  of  many  other  places  during  those  awful 
days. 

On  more  than  one  occasion  in  the  past,  Mussulman 
fanaticism  rendered  itself  odious  to  the  civilized  world 
by  its  wholesale  massacre  of  defenseless  Christians. 
The  world  has  not  forgotten  the  military  intervention 
of  Napoleon  III  in  Syria,  which  put  a  stop  to  the 
cruelty  to  the  Druses.  The  France  of  that  day  was 
actuated  not  only  by  noble  sentiments,  but  exercised 
the  right  of  protection  of  oriental  Christians,  a  right 
recognized  by  the  Powers  and  confirmed  by  treaties 
dating  back  several  centuries.  This  right  has  been 

281 


THE  VATICAN 

questioned  in  recent  years  and  a  plan  has  been  formed 
in  Europe  for  the  supplanting  of  France  in  this  an- 
cient role  of  protector  of  Catholics  in  these  infidel 
regions  of  the  East.  The  idea  of  robbing  France  of 
this  precious  source  of  influence  was  sure  to  occur  to 
wary  neighbors  who  perceived  that  the  French  gov- 
ernment was  bent  on  making  anti-clericalism  the 
key-stone  of  its  policy.  Cambetta  had  well  said  that 
anti-clericalism  was  "not  an  article  for  exportation," 
and  after  him  many  French  governments  strove  to 
withstand  the  pressure  of  the  masonic  lodges  which 
would  destroy  these  French  protectorates  over  Chris- 
tians in  distant  lands.  But  it  is  now  too  late  to  re- 
cover the  lost  ground.  The  Vatican  sees  this  clearly, 
even  if  the  French  government  does  not.  A  proof 
or  two  of  this  fact  might  be  given  here.  Take  the 
attitude  of  the  Berlin  government  when  two  German 
missionaries  were  recently  massacred  in  China.  The 
German  Emperor  made  most  pressing  efforts  to  ob- 
tain from  the  Holy  See  the  recognition  of  his  right 
to  protect  German  missionary  workers  in  distant 
lands.  Still  more  recently,  also  at  the  suggestion  of 
Germany,  the  Sultan  wished  to  accredit  an  Ottoman 
ambassador  to  the  Vatican.  In  a  word,  throughout 
the  whole  Orient,  from  Constantinople  to  Peking,  the 
old  protectorate  rights  of  France  have  been  thrown 
aside,  until  it  is  not  only  all  Catholics  but  all  sensible 
Frenchmen  who  lament  this  belittling  of  the  national 
patrimony.  For  a  moment,  however,  they  took  heart 
again.  Cardinal  Langenieux  made  a  direct  appeal  to 
the  sympathy  of  Leo  XIII  by  requesting  the  appoint- 

282 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

ment  of  a  National  Committee  for  the  Preservation 
and  Defense  of  the  French  Protectorate.  "The  ruin 
of  this  protectorate,"  wrote  the  Cardinal  Archbishop 
of  Rheims,  "would  surely  be  for  our  country  a  misfor- 
tune and  a  humiliation,  and  it  is  also  very  certain  that 
it  would  cause  much  harm  to  the  Church."  The  Holy 
Father  replied  to  the  cardinal  in  a  letter  of  deep  sig- 
nificance. Not  only  does  he  highly  praise  "the  happy 
thought  conceived  by  the  Cardinal  of  Rheims,"  but 
he  recognizes  and  re-consecrates  "the  six-times-cen- 
tenary mandate"  which  all  those  should  maintain  who 
have  at  heart  the  great  interests  of  religion  and  the 
country.  Here  is  the  most  important  passage  of  this 
letter,  copied  from  the  official  text  in  the  archives  of 
the  Vatican : 

"The  matter  to  which  you  call  our  attention  comes  up  at 
the  right  moment,  and  we  trust  that  great  things  will  come 
of  it  in  the  near  future.  France  has  a  special  mission  in  the 
Orient  confided  to  her  by  Providence.  It  is  a  noble  mission 
consecrated  not  only  by  long  practice  but  also  by  inter- 
national treaties,  which  has  also  been  recognized  in  our  day 
by  our  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  in  a  declaration 
dated  May  22,  1888.  In  fact,  the  Holy  See  does  not  wish 
in  any  way  to  infringe  upon  the  glorious  patrimony  which 
France  has  received  from  her  ancestors  and  whose  preserva- 
tion she  doubtless  intends  to  show  herself  worthy  of  by 
always  remaining  equal  to  her  task." 

This  is  the  first  time  that  the  Sovereign  Pontiff 
affirms,  in  a  personal  and  public  document,  this  right 
of  France,  which  is  a  fact  of  the  highest  importance. 
But  unfortunately  for  the  Church  and  for  France, 

283 


THE  VATICAN 


questioned  irrecent  years  and  a  plan  has  beei 
in  Europe  fr  the  supplanting  of  France  ii 
cient  role  otprotector  of  Catholics  in  thej 
regions  of  th  East.     The  idea  of  robbing 
this  precioussource  of  influence  was  sure  t( 
wary  neighbrs  who  perceived  that  the  Fi 
ernment  wa  bent  on  making  anti-clerk 
key-stone  of  ts  policy.     Cambetta  had  wel 
anti-clericaliai  was  "not  an  article  for  ex] 
and  after  hh  many  French  governments 
withstand  th  pressure  of  the  masonic  loc 
would  destrtf  these  French  protectorates 
tians  in  distnt  lands.     But  it  is  now  to( 
cover  the  losground.     The  Vatican  sees 
even  if  the  Drench  government  does  nol 
or  two  of  th  fact  might  be  given  here^ 
attitude  of  te  Berlin  government  when 
missionaries  vere  recently  massacred  in 
German  Eroeror  made  most  pressing 
tain  from  tb  Holy  See  the  recognitioi 
to  protect   German  missionary  workej 
lands.     Stilknore  recently,  also  at  the 
Germany,  tb  Sultan  wished  to  accredi 
ambassador  o  the  Vatican.     In  a  woi 
the  whole  Gent,  from  Constantinople 
old  protectoate  rights  of  France  hav 
aside,  until  iis  not  only  all  Catholics 
Frenchmen  rho  lament  this 
patrimony.  For  a 
again.     Caia 
the  sympatl 


POLITICO*0 


of  this  protectorate* 
ofRheims, 
tune  and  a 
it  would  cause  i 
Father  replk 
nificance.    Xoto 
thought  conceked 
he  recognizes  anc 
tenary  mandate* 

have  at  heart  the  gr 

country.    Here  is  A« 

letter,  copied  from  1 

the  Vatican: 

"The  matter  to  wti 
the  right  moment,  and 
of  it  in  the  near  future. 
Orient  confided  to  her  by 
consecrated  not  only  by 
national  treaties,  which  has 
by  our  Congregation  of  the 
dated  May  22,  1888.    In  f act  tk  Brijr  « 
in  any  way  to  infringe  upon  u*  C^KMBB  pi 
France  has  received  from  her  anetfton  *z*d  i 
tion  she  doubtless  intends  to  aWv  hcndf 
always  remaining  equal  to  her  tait" 

This  is  the  first  time  that 
affirms,  in  a  person  s1 


of  France, 
But  u 


-v. 


.-.! 


THE  VATICAN 

since  that  time  the  country  has  been  governed  by  sec- 
taries who  have  renounced,  de  facto,  this  glorious 
right,  so  that  missionaries  no  longer  finding  support 
and  protection  from  the  foreign  agents  of  France, 
are  obliged  to  turn  toward  those  of  other  Christian 
governments,  who  are  only  too  glad  to  obtain  the 
prestige  and  influence  that  go  with  this  role.  It  is 
true  that  M.  Pichon,  the  present  French  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  when  questioned,  in  May,  1909, 
in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  concerning  the  exist- 
ence or  not  of  this  protectorate,  declared  that  France 
still  maintained  it  effectively.  But  is  this  statement 
perfectly  exact?  The  Vatican  does  not  think  so. 
For,  leaving  out  the  question  of  the  Holy  See,  writh 
which  the  French  government  will  now  have  nothing 
to  do,  M.  Pichon  gives  as  the  precarious  basis  of 
this  protectorate  only  the  old  treaties  with  Oriental 
and  European  Powers,  that  is  to  say  with  the  very 
Powers  which  today  attack  the  validity  of  these 
treaties.  What  reply  can  France  make  when  Ger- 
many, England,  Italy  and  Russia  say,  "Our  mission- 
aries as  well  as  our  Catholic  subjects  complain  that 
you  do  not  protect  them  in  carrying  on  their  char- 
itable work.  We  therefore  reclaim  our  natural  right 
to  protect  them  ourselves  and  to  defend  the  interests 
of  our  subjects,  in  whatever  part  of  the  world  they 
may  be  found"?  And,  furthermore,  what  would  be- 
come of  the  present  absurd  French  protectorate  if 
the  Pope,  weary  of  this  situation,  should  say  to  the 
Catholics  in  missionary  lands,  "Since  France  has 
really  abandoned  its  protectorate  rights,  you  may  now 

284. 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

turn  to  those  who  can  and  will  give  you  aid  and  pro- 
tection. You,  of  course,  must  live  first,  primum  est 
vivere"?  It  is  to  such  a  pass  that  the  narrow  and 
impolitic  spirit  of  sectaries  has  brought  a  great 
country. 

THE    BALKAN    STATES  AND   GREECE 

The  Balkan  States  and  Greece  have  glorious  mili- 
tary annals  which  do  not  at  all  correspond  with  their 
geographical  size  or  limited  population.  Thus,  if  we 
except  Roumania  and  Bulgaria,  none  have  a  popula- 
tion equal  to  the  city  of  London,  4,522,961,  or  Paris, 
2,846,986.  Their  population  is  as  follows:  Greece, 
2,433,806;  Montenegro,  228,000;  Servia,  2,493,770; 
Roumania,  5,912,520;  Bulgaria,  4,158,409.  In  the 
whole  Balkan  Peninsula,  even  including  Turkey  in 
Europe,  the  Latin  Catholics  number  only  548,028, 
with  606  priests.  The  Orthodox  Greeks  or  schismat- 
ics are  the  dominant  religious  power,  and  in  Turkey 
in  Europe,  the  Mussulmans,  especially.  Catholi- 
cism is  officially  respected,  but  does  not  make  much 
progress.  So  we  need  not  tarry  longer  over  this  por- 
tion of  Europe. 

SCANDINAVIA 

The  Scandinavian  countries,  so  religious  by  nature, 
were,  until  very  recent  years,  firmly  closed  against 
Catholicism,  though  they  had  been,  previous  to  the 
Reformation,  one  of  the  glories  of  Rome.  But 
nearly  three  centuries  of  persecution,  the  absence  of 
legitimate  pastors — priests  and  bishops  were  con- 
tinually being  expelled  from  the  country — and  the 

285 


THE  VATICAN 

circulation  of  most  abominable  calumnies  among  the 
people,  ended  not  only  in  the  faith's  being  forgotten 
but  also  in  the  implanting  of  veritable  hatred  for 
Catholicism  in  the  Scandinavian  soul.  A  singular, 
and  relatively  recent,  example  of  this  fact  may  be 
given  here. 

About  1850,  two  Catholic  priests  arrived  in  Ice- 
land, sent  there  by  the  Pope.  Their  coming  caused 
such  a  commotion  that  they  were  threatened  with  the 
application  of  a  law  which  still  exists,  and  which  con- 
demns to  the  bastinade  and  proscription  any  Catholic 
ecclesiastic  found  in  the  country.  It  may  be  added, 
however,  that  the  higher  court  acquitted  one  of  these 
priests,  while  the  other,  the  Abbe  Bernard,  left  the 
island.  The  Abbe  Beaudoin,  who  remained,  pub- 
lished there,  in  the  Icelandic  tongue,  an  apology 
for  the  Catholic  faith,  which  did  much  good.  He 
died  in  1876,  and  his  place  was  not  taken  until 
some  years  after.  Yet,  before  the  Reformation, 
there  were  in  Iceland  twenty-six  Benedictine,  Au- 
gustinian  and  Cistercian  convents. 

In  Sweden,  at  the  time  of  the  triumph  of  the 
Reformation,  all  the  bishops  were  imprisoned  on  the 
same  day  and  finally  expelled  from  the  country,  along 
with  their  priests.  It  was  not  until  1789,  that  King 
Gustavus  permitted  Catholics  to  inhabit  the  country 
and  publicly  to  practice  their  religion.  In  1857,  the 
first  Catholic  Church  was  built  in  Sweden,  and  it  was 
not  until  1860,  that  the  law  was  annulled  condemning 
to  exile  and  depriving  of  the  right  of  inheritance  all 
those  who  abjured  Lutheranism  in  order  to  become 

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POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

Roman  Catholics.  It  was  only  in  1899,  that  Catho- 
lics finally  obtained  permission,  so  long  refused  them, 
to  establish  a  parish  at  Norrkoping,  a  good  example 
of  the  immense  difficulties  which  the  Catholics  have 
had  to  overcome  in  Sweden,  where  completely  en- 
lightened ideas  of  tolerance  do  not  yet  prevail.  Thus, 
in  this  same  year  of  1899,  the  two  vicars  apostolic  of 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  Monsignor  van  Euch  and 
Monsignor  Bitter,  accompanied  by  two  German 
priests,  wished  to  examine  some  Scandinavian  re- 
ligious antiquities.  The  rumor  was  spread  through- 
out the  country  that  they  had  come  to  hold  a  Scan- 
dinavian conclave  to  increase  Catholic  influence;  the 
populace  crowded  about  them  in  a  menacing  attitude 
and  the  upper  classes  looked  on  with  mistrust.  For- 
tunately, the  king,  whom  they  had  met  at  Marstrand, 
received  them  with  kindness,  and  the  populace  then 
followed  his  example. 

When  Monsignor  Fallize  went  to  take  possession 
of  his  apostolic  post  in  Norway,  which  he  still  fills 
with  distinction,  Cardinal  Manning  sent  him  a  kind 
letter  of  encouragement,  which  well  reflects  the  up- 
hill work  which  Catholicism  has  to  do  in  order  to 
make  progress  in  Scandinavia.  Hence  it  is  that  this 
excellent  letter  is  given  a  place  here.  The  text  runs 
as  follows : 

"I  should  caution  you  against  a  feeling  which  may  take 
possession  of  you.  When,  as  is  sure  to  be  the  case,  you  per- 
ceive that,  in  Norway  conversions  will  be  made  only  one  by 
one,  you  may  lose  heart  and  conclude  that  your  method  of 
evangelism  is  defective  and  lost  on  such  a  people.  Your 


THE  VATICAN 

memories  of  England  may  be  apt  to  strengthen  you  in  this 
belief;  for  you  will  say  that  if,  in  general,  it  is  difficult  to 
bring  back  straying  Protestants  to  the  true  Church,  the 
difficulty  should  be  the  same  in  England,  where,  however, 
conversions  are  very  numerous.  But  in  thinking  thus,  you 
make  a  grave  mistake.  Catholicism  was  never  extinguished 
in  England,  whereas  in  Norway,  it  exists  only  in  the 
prejudices  of  the  masses.  Furthermore,  Anglicanism  is 
much  nearer  Catholicism  than  is  Norwegian  Lutheranism; 
and  then  again  the  Catholic  Church  in  England  has  long  had 
an  episcopacy  and  many  priests,  convents  now  so  numerous 
that  they  cannot  be  counted  and  Catholic  families  as  rich 
as  they  are  influential,  whereas  your  mission  is  born  of 
yesterday,  and  you  a  simple  priest" — Monsignor  Fallize 
was  made  a  bishop  at  a  later  date — "will  find  in  Norway  but 
eight  stations,  all  of  recent  date,  with  a  dozen  and  a  half  of 
priests,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  foreigners,  and  a  few  hundred 
Catholics,  mostly  poor  and  without  influence." 

Things  have  greatly  changed  in  Norway  during  the 
past  twenty  years.  Now,  not  only  does  the  Catholic 
Church  there  enjoy  great  liberty,  but  the  spirit  of 
the  Church  has  almost  penetrated  into  the  text  of 
the  laws.  On  several  occasions,  Monsignor  Fallize 
has  made  his  voice  heard  in  the  consideration  of  these 
new  laws,  and  his  intervention  has  always  been  re- 
ceived with  a  consideration  which  shows  the  broad- 
minded  liberality  which  now  prevails  in  Norway.  A 
few  examples  of  this  may  be  given  here. 

On  April  16,  1898,  the  Lower  House  of  the  Stor- 
thing was  engaged  in  debating  a  bill  concerning  cre- 
mation after  death.  One  of  the  articles  permitted  a 
Protestant  father  to  burn  the  dead  body  of  his  son 

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POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

if  less  than  nineteen  years  old,  even  if  the  convictions 
of  the  child  were  opposed  to  cremation,  and  obliged 
a  child  to  burn  the  body  of  his  father  if  the  latter 
had  expressed  this  wish.  Thereupon,  Bishop  Fallize 
sent  the  Storthing  a  letter,  which  was  read  before  the 
assembly,  in  which  he  complained  that  these  measures 
violated  the  conscience  of  Catholics.  The  articles 
were  thereupon  modified,  and  the  Protestant  clergy, 
who  had  not  protested,  in  turn  thanked  Monsignor 
Fallize  for  having  secured  their  defeat. 

Again,  Catholic  children  receiving  aid  from  the 
public  charities  were  placed  like  Protestant  children 
in  Protestant  families  and  brought  up  in  the  Lutheran 
religion.  The  bishop  asked  that  this  be  changed, 
which  was  done. 

A  still  more  notable  instance  of  the  growing  influ- 
ence of  Catholicism  in  Norway  is  seen  in  the  part 
which  Lutherans  take  in  the  Catholic  celebration 
of  St.  Olaf,  one  of  the  first  Apostles  of  the  Nor- 
wegian nation,  whose  relics  are  preserved  at  Trondh- 
jem,  the  famous  city  of  the  north.  This  celebration 
has  become  a  national  event,  with  the  warm  approval 
of  the  patriotic  poet,  who,  however,  is  a  Lutheran, 
Bjornstjerne  Bjornson.  In  1899,  the  government 
decided  that  a  special  liturgical  service  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  day. 

Several  causes  contribute  to  the  spread  of  the  lib- 
eral spirit  towards  Catholicism  which  exists  in  Scan- 
dinavia, and  especially  in  Norway.  In  the  first  place, 
liberalism  and  free  thought  together,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  contributed  to  the  throwing  down  of  the  barriers 

289 


THE  VATICAN 

jealously  raised  by  the  Reformation  between  Norway 
and  the  rest  of  the  world,  in  order  to  keep  her  safely 
in  the  Lutheran  belief.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  formerly  Scandinavia  was  in  frequent  communi- 
cation with  the  center  of  Europe.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century,  the  "Chanson  de  Roland"  was 
sung  in  these  northern  climes.  But  after  the  Refor- 
mation foreign  ideas  were  severely  proscribed  under 
the  empire  of  a  Lutheran  conservatism  which  easily 
took  umbrage.  But  the  barriers  once  thrown  down, 
the  Church  quickly  profited  by  the  anti-conservative 
current  which  then  spread  over  the  country  and  firmly 
established  itself  at  Christiania,  then  at  Bergen  and 
finally  wherever  a  good  opportunity  was  offered  to 
do  so. 

The  second  cause  of  this  change  was  the  conversion 
to  Catholicism  of  several  personages,  widely  known 
and  highly  esteemed,  especially  the  conversion  of  Dr. 
Krogh  Tonning,  rector  of  the  chief  Protestant  church 
of  Christiania.  He  had  long  been  celebrated  in  the 
north  for  his  works  on  theology,  for  the  nobility  of 
his  character  and  the  dignity  of  his  life.  It  has  been 
said  of  him  that  he  was  "a  man  in  the  full  meaning 
of  the  word."  Every  book  he  published,  the  out- 
come of  an  exceptionally  honest  and  unprejudiced 
mind,  carried  him  nearer  to  Rome.  The  Vatican 
long  watched  this  evolution  with  deep  interest.  In 
1880-1881,  he  issued  a  work  wherein  he  examined  the 
difference  between  the  Catholic  doctrine  and  that  of 
Lutheranism  as  regards  justification,  and  reached  the 
conclusion  that  the  dogma  professed  by  the  Catholic 

290 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

Church  is  in  conformity  with  the  Gospel,  and  proved 
the  necessity  of  the  repenting  soul  receiving  absolu- 
tion, as  the  word  of  God  addressed  directly  to  the 
soul,  of  which  the  Church  is  the  dispenser.  In  1898, 
his  "Dogma  of  Grace  and  Reform"  caused  a  sensa- 
tion. He  showed  in  this  book  that  the  Catholic 
Church  had  not  varied  in  its  teaching  concerning 
grace,  which  was  the  same  as  the  doctrine  formulated 
by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  that  Lutheranism, 
abandoning  the  deterministic  doctrine  of  its  founder, 
was  returning  slowly  and  unconsciously,  as  it  were,  to 
the  Church  of  Rome. 

Finally,  in  the  decline  of  his  life,  Dr.  Tonning  de- 
cided to  leave  the  Protestant  sect,  and  on  February 
4,  1900,  before  a  full  church,  filled  with  emotion,  he 
bade  farewell  to  his  congregation.  It  was  a  touching 
spectacle,  this  passing  of  a  soul  from  one  faith  to 
another,  breaking  with  his  own  hands  the  dearest  and 
most  intimate  bonds  which  united  him  with  so  many 
old  friends.  His  face  showed  the  anguish  within  the 
heart.  He  spoke  with  great  feeling,  and  summed 
up  his  labor  and  experience  in  these  memorable  words : 
"Would  that  all  might  be  one, — one  in  love  and  one 
in  faith;  that  there  might  be  but  one  flock  and  one 
shepherd."  This,  he  said,  had  been  his  daily  prayer, 
and  that  henceforth  he  hoped  the  congregation  would 
never  forget  it.  Then  he  thanked  his  parishioners 
for  fifteen  happy  years  filled  with  faith  and  con- 
solation, and  when  he  had  closed,  the  members  of  the 
congregation,  their  eyes  filled  with  tears,  advanced 
to  shake  hands  with  him  for  the  last  time.  Five 

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THE  VATICAN 

months  later,  after  a  retreat,  he  joined  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  a  letter  written  after  his  conversion  and 
addressed  to  the  poet  Bjornson,  he  laid  bare  his  strong 
and  tender  soul,  and  dwelt  on  the  happiness  which  he 
felt  in  at  last  finding  himself  "in  the  truth."  He 
declared  that  he  had  left  without  regret,  his  charming, 
comfortable  old  home  at  Akersbakden,  the  home  circle 
which  he  himself  had  destroyed,  his  courageous  family 
which  resignedly  accepted  his  conversion  and  suffered 
uncomplainingly  the  lessening  of  its  position  in  the 
world. 

But  the  chief  cause  of  the  growing  influence  of 
Catholicism  in  Norway  is  certainly  the  admirable  zeal 
of  the  vicar  apostolic,  Monsignor  Fallize,  who  is  the 
soul  of  the  Catholic  movement  in  the  North.  He  is 
indefatigable  in  his  labors,  makes  incessant  pastoral 
visits  which  entail  long  and  fatiguing  journeys  and 
is  ever  printing  pamphlets  which  treat  of  the  burn- 
ing questions  of  the  hour.  He  was  long  aided  in 
his  labors  by  the  Abbe  Wang,  pastor  of  the  grand 
Church  of  St.  Olaf  at  Christiania.  The  valiant 
bishop  is  heartily  supported  by  the  Norwegian  Catho- 
lics, who  concentrate  their  efforts  rather  than  dis- 
perse them,  as  is  done  so  often  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  much  to  the  regret  of  the  Vatican.  Thus,  in 
Norway,  every  Catholic  is  a  member  of  some  Church 
association,  and  the  weekly  journal,  the  St.  Olaf, 
is  their  organ.  Catholic  enterprises  of  all  kinds  are 
flourishing,  especially  those  of  a  charitable  nature. 
The  Catholic  hospitals  are  organized  with  all  modern 
comforts  and  have  as  nurses  Sisters  of  Charity,  who 

292 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

are  mujch  liked  by  the  people.  These  charitable  in- 
stitutions have  done  much  to  destroy  popular  preju- 
dices against  Catholicism,  and  arouse  sympathy  for 
the  doctrine.  The  number  of  Catholics  remains,  how- 
ever, excessively  small  in  these  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries,— scarcely  40,000  out  of  a  total  population  of 
9,000,000.  But  when  one  takes  into  account  the  re- 
markable activity  of  this  little  group,  the  vastness 
of  the  good  work  which  they  accomplish,  and  the  large 
part  which  they  play  in  proportion  to  their  number, 
one  is  forced  to  admire  their  efforts  and  even  their 
relative  success.  This  proves  what  the  Vatican  has 
so  often  declared  to  be  the  case,  that  the  Catholic 
Church  needs  but  liberty  in  order  to  blossom  and 
produce  the  fruits  of  grace  and  salvation,  which  is 
happily  the  case  in  Norway  and  Denmark,  and  is 
beginning  to  be  enjoyed  in  Sweden  also. 

In  Denmark,  Catholics  en j  oy  almost  perfect  liberty. 
Though  they  still  have  to  contribute  to  the  support 
of  the  state  church,  the  Lutheran,  and  to  the  state 
schools,  they  share  in  all  the  other  liberties  of  the 
Danes.  They  especially  utilize  for  the  advancement 
of  their  interests,  the  right  of  association  which  has 
rendered  Denmark  the  country  of  the  world  where 
societies  of  all  kinds,  mutual,  cooperative,  savings 
banks,  pension  funds,  aid  societies,  charity  societies, 
et  cetera,  are  most  numerous. 

The  Catholic  Church  throughout  Scandinavia  bases 
the  greatest  hopes  for  the  future  on  her  schools. 
In  Denmark,  the  Catholic  schools  are  subjected  to 
government  inspection,  but  otherwise  they  are  left 

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THE  VATICAN 

quite  free.  Some  two  thousand  children  are  being 
educated  in  these  schools.  Ten  years  ago  the  boys' 
school  at  Frederiksberg,  kept  by  the  Marists,  had  102 
pupils;  today,  it  has  200.  In  the  school  at  Reik- 
avik,  Iceland,  are  some  thirty  Catholic  children. 
For  secondary  education  there  is  a  school  at  Amager 
kept  by  a  converted  Protestant  clergyman.  At  Oz- 
drup,  the  Jesuit  Fathers  have  200  young  men  in  their 
charge.  At  Copenhagen  there  are  two  Catholic 
schools  for  girls.  At  Frederiksberg  there  are  two 
orphan  asylums,  one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls, 
where  200  children  are  educated  in  the  right  faith ;  and 
a  third  has  been  founded  at  Rauders  in  Jutland.  At 
Odense,  a  priest  has  founded  a  secondary  school  in 
which  there  are  about  a  hundred  boys,  while  about  the 
same  number  of  girls  are  being  educated  in  the  same 
city  in  a  boarding-school  kept  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph. 

In  Norway,  the  plan  of  studies  as  laid  down  by  the 
state  is  adopted  by  the  Catholic  schools.  Each  church 
has  its  school,  kept  by  Sisters  or  priests,  liberty  of  in- 
struction being  complete  in  Norway.  The  official 
inspection  of  schools  is  not  carried  out  in  reality;  the 
children  have  simply  to  present  a  certificate  from  their 
priest  showing  that  they  have  been  given  sufficient 
religious  instruction.  Catholics  do  not  have  to  con- 
tribute towards  the  support  of  the  regular  state 
schools,  as  these  schools  are  kept  up  by  the  bishops  of 
the  official  church,  which  is  of  course  the  Lutheran. 
It  is  difficult  to  give  Catholic  children,  living  in  the 
country  districts  or  in  cities  without  Catholic  schools, 

294 


POLITICO-RELIGIOUS  HISTORY 

a  Catholic  education.  To  remove  this  defect,  two 
boys'  boarding-schools  have  been  established  by  the 
Norwegian  Catholics,  one  at  Christiania  and  the  other 
at  Hammerfest,  which  can  furnish  a  complete  educa- 
tion; while  the  St.  Joseph  Institute  at  Christiania 
provides  secondary  instruction  for  girls. 

In  Sweden,  Catholics  are  taxed  for  the  state  schools 
and  the  Lutheran  church.  But  the  law  permits  teach- 
ing by  those  who  have  no  diploma,  though  the  schools 
are  subject  to  regular  inspections.  In  non-state 
schools  no  religious  instruction  may  be  given,  but  the 
children  must  show  the  inspector  a  certificate  of  re- 
ligious instruction  signed  by  their  priest.  Stockholm 
and  several  of  the  other  chief  cities  of  the  kingdom 
have  Catholic  primary  schools.  In  a  word,  Catholic 
instruction  is  being  more  and  more  cared  for  through- 
out the  three  Scandinavian  countries. 

HOLLAND 

From  a  Catholic  point  of  view,  Holland  is  not 
what  it  is  generally  supposed  to  be, — a  country  that 
is  completely  Calvinistic.  Far  from  it.  In  a  popula- 
tion of  5,898,429,  there  are  nearly  two  million  Catho- 
lics. Some  dioceses,  Roermond,  Bois  le  Due,  and 
Breda,  for  instance,  are  almost  entirely  Catholic. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  the  most  unheard- 
of  persecutions  were  resorted  to  against  the  Catho- 
lics. The  majority  of  the  priests  and  bishops  were 
martyred  or  driven  into  exile;  in  fact,  the  evil  work 
was  done  so  thoroughly  that  there  remained  no  vestige 
of  the  Catholic  hierarchy,  which  then  embraced  an 
20  295 


THE  VATICAN 

to  aid  the  Old  Catholic  movement  in  Switzerland ;  for, 
like  Bismarck  in  Germany,  the  Swiss  radicals  hoped 
by  transforming  the  Catholics  into  Protestants  to  ad- 
vance their  own  political  unity  by  the  unity  of  re- 
ligious faith. 

This  was  the  policy  adopted  throughout  the  whole 
Swiss  Confederation,  and  it  met  with  some  success, 
during  several  years,  at  Lucerne  and  St.  Gall,  until 
the  number  of  Old  Catholics  began  to  sink  little  by 
little  and  finally  got  so  low  that  the  state  felt  bound 
to  suppress  the  subsidy  and  end  the  possession  of  the 
churches  by  a  mere  handful  of  schismatics  without 
cohesion  or  importance.  At  Zurich,  at  first  the  state 
hastened  to  put  the  Old  Catholics  in  possession  of  the 
church  edifice  which  had  for  long  years  been  the  meet- 
ing-place of  the  true  Catholics.  But  nothing  was 
gained  thereby.  The  Catholics  built  another  church, 
and  their  number  soon  began  to  grow,  in  this  the  most 
industrial  center  of  Switzerland,  so  that  two  other 
churches  were  necessary.  The  last  of  these  was  con- 
secrated scarcely  ten  years  ago.  Nor  did  the  Old 
Catholics  take  root  at  Basle,  where  the  faithful  have 
three  churches,  which  means  that  the  Catholic  group 
is  in  full  prosperity.  In  the  canton  of  Aargau  the 
schism  has  had  more  success,  for  the  Catholic  minority 
has  been  oppressed  ever  since  1814  by  a  bold  Prot- 
estant majority,  warmly  backed  by  the  neighboring 
cantons  of  Zurich  and  Berne,  which  have  for  three 
centuries  been  at  the  head  of  a  militant  persecuting 
Protestantism. 

But  it  is  in  that  part  of  Switzerland  where  French 

306 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

or  Romansch  is  spoken  that  the  most  serious  trouble 
was  occasioned  by  this  violent  introduction  of  the 
schism.  Not  the  least  outrageous  part  of  this  attack 
on  right  and  morality  was  the  fact  that  these  sectarian 
acts  of  the  local  authorities  of  Berne  and  Geneva,  aided 
by  the  federal  authorities,  had  as  their  theater  terri- 
tories taken  from  Catholic  France  at  the  time  of  the 
general  readjustment  of  Europe  in  1814, — the  Ber- 
nese Jura  and  the  new  portion  of  the  canton  of  Ge- 
neva, Catholic  regions  from  time  immemorial,  which 
were  handed  over  to  Switzerland  by  the  Treaty  of  Vi- 
enna on  the  express  condition  that  the  religion  of  the 
inhabitants  should  be  respected.  The  conduct  of  the 
canton  of  Berne  in  its  treatment  of  the  peaceful  people 
of  the  Jura  was  utterly  indefensible.  Not  less  than 
60,000  Catholics  were  deprived  of  their  religion, 
eighty  priests  were  expelled  from  the  territory  of  the 
canton,  bishops  were  driven  into  exile,  et  cetera. 
This  persecution  lasted  for  fifteen  years.  But  the 
resistance  of  the  inhabitants  was  so  energetic,  that 
finally  the  Bernese  government  had  to  admit  itself 
beaten,  and  the  proscribed  priests  were  given  back 
their  charges.  But,  although  this  happened  some 
years  ago,  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  all  injustice 
towards  Catholics  has  disappeared  in  those  parts  of 
Switzerland.  The  Bernese  government  still  refuses 
to  give  up  some  of  the  Church  property,  our  Sisters 
of  Charity  may  not  establish  themselves  in  the 
Bernese  J,ura,  nor  may  our  religious  orders  teach 
there. 

The  authorities  were  two  years  in  drawing  up  the 

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THE  VATICAN 

bill  which  was  to  install  the  Old  Catholics  in  Geneva, 
and  when  it  was  finally  presented  to  the  people  for 
their  approval  or  disapproval,  the  measure  was  carried 
almost  unanimously,  conservative  and  liberal  Prot- 
estants alike  voting  for  it.  There  were  in  fact  but  150 
negative  votes.  In  accordance  with  this  law,  the 
priests  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  people.  But  natu- 
rally Catholic  citizens  would  take  no  part  in  these 
sacerdotal  elections,  which  were  of  course  condemned 
by  the  Pope  and  the  bishops,  and  were  vitiated  by  this 
non-participation  of  the  Catholic  element  of  the  popu- 
lation. In  three  parishes  of  Geneva,  Protestants  and 
confessed  free  thinkers  got  their  names  illegally  on  the 
registers  and  so  voted  on  the  choice  of  Catholic  priests. 
The  number  of  these  illegal  voters  was  very  large.  In 
the  rural  districts,  forty  mayors  or  vice-mayors  were 
removed  because  they  declined  to  perform  their  part 
in  these  farcical  elections.  So  to  meet  this  unforeseen 
difficulty  of  abstention,  the  government  carried  an- 
other bill,  which  made  one  quarter  of  the  votes  on 
the  registers  sufficient  for  the  choice  of  a  priest,  and 
then  when  it  was  found  that  this  quarter  could  not 
be  obtained,  a  third  law  was  voted  which  made  an  elec- 
tion legal  no  matter  what  might  be  the  number  of 
votes  cast! 

But  Protestant  high-handedness  in  Geneva  did  not 
stop  here.  Some  thirty  years  before  this  conflict 
began,  the  Catholics  had  founded  with  their  own 
money  a  hospital  for  their  sick,  an  orphan  asylum  and 
three  primary  schools  managed  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  with  charity  work  attached  thereto. 

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THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

There  were  also  two  boys'  schools  managed  by  Broth- 
ers of  the  Christian  Doctrine  and  an  asylum  for  poor 
girls.  All  these  institutions  were  suppressed,  the 
buildings  confiscated  and  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  ex- 
pelled from  the  country.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame, 
a  fine  large  edifice  built  with  the  subscriptions  of 
Swiss  Catholics  and  those  of  all  the  world,  was  legally 
owned  by  a  committee  of  Catholic  citizens.  The  gov- 
ernment demanded  that  the  committee  be  reflected. 
The  vote  for  this  purpose  was  scandalously  fraudu- 
lent, nearly  500  unknown  voters  being  put  on  the 
register  for  this  purpose.  Confronted  by  such  pro- 
ceedings, victims  of  a  campaign  directed  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  state  council  in  person,  the  Catholics  were 
sure  to  be  vanquished,  which  was  the  case.  But  a 
delegate  of  the  Catholics  carried  their  complaint  be- 
fore the  federal  council,  which  admitted  that  there 
was  good  ground  for  the  complaint,  but  added  that 
the  council  could  not  act,  as  the  deed  was  done. 

Such  is  the  course  that  was  pursued  in  the  canton 
of  Geneva  for  over  thirty  years  by  a  coalition  of  radi- 
cals and  sectarian  Protestants.  It  cost  a  loss  of  over 
seven  millions  of  francs  to  the  Catholic  citizens  of 
Geneva,  whose  churches  and  hospitals  were  confis- 
cated, the  salaries  of  whose  priests  were  stopped,  and 
who  had  now  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  these  ec- 
clesiastics and  to  raise  funds  for  the  building  of  chap- 
els and  presbyteries  to  take  the  place  of  those  handed 
over  to  the  schismatics.  The  other  expenses  of  the 
service  had  to  be  met  by  them,  as,  in  fact,  had  always 
been  the  case,  whereas  the  government  gave  special 

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aid  to  the  schismatics  and  paid  each  Old  Catholic 
priest  a  salary  of  3,000  francs  per  year.  But  not- 
withstanding all  this  official  aid,  it  early  began  to  be 
evident  that  the  schism  was  making  no  real  progress 
in  Geneva.  The  departure  of  Hyacinthe  Loyson  and 
the  other  disowned  French  priests  who  had  come  to 
his  help,  gave  the  movement  a  fatal  blow,  especially 
as  his  followers  were  rather  free  thinkers  than  con- 
vinced disciples.  In  fact,  he  did  not  practice  any  real 
form  of  religion. 

Finally,  the  Catholic  parishes  grew  tired  of  keep- 
ing up  churches  which  were  never  opened,  and  by  the 
end  of  1897,  the  canton  of  Geneva  was  forced  to  listen 
to  the  complaints  of  the  Catholics,  who  had  fourteen 
churches  returned  to  them,  which  reduced  the  schis- 
matics to  four  rural  and  two  urban  parishes.  Since 
then,  this  stormy  religious  period  has  been  followed 
everywhere  in  Switzerland  by  a  more  peaceful  one. 
Monsignor  Mermillod,  returned  home,  founded  the 
celebrated  Catholic  University  of  Fribourg,  and  was 
given  before  his  death  the  cardinal's  hat.  Notre 
Dame  of  Geneva  was  returned  to  the  Catholics  in 
virtue  of  the  law  establishing  the  separation  of  Church 
and  state,  which  law,  by  the  way,  did  not  embarrass 
the  Catholics,  who  were  already  self-supporting,  but 
did  deal  a  final  blow  to  the  Old  Catholics  who  could 
only  live  by  state  aid. 

A  bitter  controversy  of  our  times  called  American- 
ism, which  lasted  for  nearly  ten  years  in  the  United 
States,  although  not  termed  a  heresy,  caused  great  agi- 
tation at  the  Vatican.  It  was  limited,  however,  to  a 

310 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

theological  dispute  which  was  almost  unknown  to  the 
rank  and  file  of  American  Catholics,  and  which  had 
this  good  side,  in  that  it  brought  about  a  precise  defini- 
tion of  Catholic  doctrine  on  an  important  point.  The 
occasion  of  this  dispute  was  the  publication  in 
America  of  "The  Life  of  Father  Hecker,"  founder 
of  the  Paulists,  by  Father  Elliott  of  the  same  order, 
issued  with  a  preface  by  Monsignor  Ireland,  and 
translated  into  French  in  1898,  with  an  introduction 
by  the  Abbe  Klein. 

Father  Hecker  was  an  ardent  and  zealous  mission- 
ary, of  whom  the  following  letter,  addressed  by  Car- 
dinal Gibbons  on  April  14,  1898,  to  Father  Elliott, 
gives  one  a  high  idea : 

"Father  Hecker  was  unquestionably  an  instrument  of 
Providence  for  the  diffusion  of  Catholic  faith  in  this  country. 
He  accomplished  a  great  good  in  bringing  nearer  to  us  our 
non-Catholic  fellow-citizens,  in  weakening  the  prejudices 
against  us,  in  securing  for  our  holy  religion  the  benevolent 
attention  of  the  public,  to  say  nothing  of  the  multitude  of 
conversions  due  directly  or  indirectly  to  him.  His  spirit 
was  that  of  a  child  obedient  to  the  Holy  Church,  a  Catholic 
spirit  without  restriction  and  in  the  full  meaning  of  the 
word.  His  life  was  graced  with  all  the  charms  of  personal 
piety.  He  was  especially  ardent  in  his  desire  to  save  souls, 
showing  in  this  the  zeal  of  a  true  Apostle.  Though  bold,  he 
was  also  prudent  in  this  labor,  and  knew  how  to  be  attractive 
to  Protestants  without,  at  the  same  time,  sacrificing  any 
orthodox  principles.  Furthermore,  Divine  Providence  has 
been  pleased  to  associate  with  him  a  community  of  men  filled 
with  a  spirit  as  noble  as  his  own.  This  order  of  Paulists 
will  continue  the  work  to  which  he  consecrated  his  life,  the 
21  311 


THE  VATICAN 

work  of  bringing  over  souls  to  the  Catholic  faith.  With  the 
help  of  God,  they  have  had  wonderful  success  in  every  field 
of  Catholic  missionary  work  throughout  the  United  States. 
They  have  especially  given  a  powerful  extension  to  the  dis- 
semination of  Catholic  writings  all  over  the  country,  a  work 
particularly  dear  to  Father  Hecker.  To  this  work,  as  to  all 
their  other  ecclesiastical  enterprises,  they  bring,  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  say,  a  respect  and  a  spirit  of  obedience  without 
reserve  for  hierarchic  authority.  I  learn  with  real  pleasure 
that  the  apostolic  career  of  Father  Hecker  is  more  and  more 
appreciated  every  day  in  Europe,  as  his  life  and  works  are 
better  known  there." 

Yet  the  life  of  Father  Hecker  was  keenly  discussed 
by  a  certain  number  of  the  French  readers  of  the  Abbe 
Klein's  book.  The  campaign  was  opened  by  M. 
Charles  Maignen  in  a  book  entitled:  "Is  Father 
Hecker  a  Saint?"  The  author  criticises,  at  one  and 
the  same  time,  the  doctrines  and  apostolic  methods 
of  the  celebrated  priest.  Next  the  learned  periodical, 
L'Ami  du  Clerge,  whose  editor  was  Canon  Perriot, 
today  Monsignor  Perriot,  apostolic  prothonotary, 
took  up  the  matter,  and  what  is  said  in  the  number  for 
October  13,  1898,  correctly  reflects  the  views  of  the 
Vatican  on  the  subject.  Here  is  an  extract  from  that 
article : 

"We  do  not  find  so  very  strange  the  originalities  and  even 
the  audacities  which  abound  in  the  'Life  of  Father  Hecker,' 
for  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  he  was  an  American  and 
that  nothing  is  done  in  that  country  as  it  is  done  elsewhere, 
a  defect  or  a  race  characteristic.  It  would  not  be  very  cor- 
rect for  us  Europeans  to  find  fault  because  one  thinks  and 

312 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

acts  in  the  New  World  differently  from  the  way  one  thinks 
and  acts  in  the  Old  World,  especially  so  long  as  agreement 
exists  on  the  essential  points  of  the  doctrine,  where  it  is 
necessary  for  the  Catholics  of  the  whole  world  to  be  at  one 
and  to  speak  exactly  the  same  language." 

The  critics  of  Father  Hecker  saw  in  his  life  and 
work  a  dogmatic  error  which  they  called  Americanism, 
and  which  consisted  in  attributing  to  the  action  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  the  soul  for  the  development  of  the 
interior  life  an  independence  which  tends  to  reduce 
and  finally  to  suppress  the  exterior  authority  of  the 
Church.  By  pushing  this  error  to  its  extreme  conse- 
quences, one  comes  to  this,  that  if  there  should  be  a 
conflict  between  what  one  supposes  to  be  the  inspira- 
tions of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  decisions  of  the 
Church,  there  can  be  no  hesitation,  one  should  follow 
the  inspirations  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  put  aside  the 
decisions  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority.  This  of 
course  amounts  to  the  Protestant  idea  of  free  examina- 
tion. The  partisans  of  Father  Hecker  repelled  with 
indignation  this  accusation  of  heresy  and  recalled  his 
own  words  spoken  immediately  after  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870,  which  run  as  follows: 

"The  definition  of  the  council  completes  and  fixes  forever 
the  exterior  authority  of  the  Church  as  opposed  to  the  heresies 
and  errors  of  the  last  three  centuries.  It  leaves  no  doubt 
concerning  the  authority  of  the  chief  of  the  Christians.  The 
partisans  of  Dollinger  do  not  see  that  what  they  pretend  to 
desire,  viz.,  the  renewing  of  the  Church  cannot  be  brought 
about  except  by  the  sovereign  reign  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which 
reign  presupposes  an  entire  and  filial  submission  to  divine 
exterior  authority." 

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THE  VATICAN 

The  Vatican  soon  succeeded  in  calming  this  dis- 
cussion by  its  habitually  prudent  and  clear  language. 
In  a  letter,  Testem  Benevolentice,  to  Cardinal  Gib- 
bons, Leo  XIII  condemned  objectively  the  heretical 
propositions  denounced  by  the  adversaries  of  Father 
Hecker,  but  without  imputing  them  to  him  or  to  his 
Paulist  priests. 

It  also  has  happened  that,  carried  away  by  the  large 
liberty  enjoyed  by  American  Catholics,  some  a  little 
too  enthusiastic  minds  have  imagined  that  this  liberty 
extends  even  to  matters  of  doctrine  and  have  formed  a 
dangerous  and  erroneous  conception  of  American 
Catholicism,  which  Leo  XIII  condemned  as  a  preface 
to  the  condemnation  of  Modernism.  But  it  should  be 
carefully  borne  in  mind  that  the  condemnation  of 
Americanism  is  the  condemnation  of  a  grave  error  and 
not  the  condemnation  of  American  Catholicism,  which 
the  Holy  Father  never  let  pass  an  opportunity  to 
praise.  In  fact,  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
employ  too  readily  the  general  terms  by  which  the 
Church  designates  certain  errors  and  to  use  them  only 
in  the  rigorous  sense  defined  by  the  sentence  of  con- 
demnation. Thus,  it  is  a  mistake  when  some  see,  in 
the  condemnation  of  Rationalism,  the  condemnation 
of  the  reason ;  in  the  condemnation  of  Liberalism,  that 
of  Americanism,  and  in  that  of  Modernism,  that  of 
the  perfectly  proper  liberty  of  the  American  Church 
or  of  the  modern  world.  Each  of  these  terms  desig- 
nates an  error  or  a  collection  of  determined  errors, 
and  it  is  not  right  to  give  them  a  wider  meaning  than 
that  attributed  to  them  by  the  Pontifical  language. 

314 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

The  error  of  Modernism  has  caused  and  still  causes 
the  Church  much  more  anxiety  than  any  other  recent 
error.  Among  ecclesiastics,  its  chief  advocates  are 
the  late  Father  Tyrrell  in  England,  the  Abbe  Loisy 
in  France,  the  late  Father  Schell  in  Germany  and  the 
Abbate  Murri  in  Italy.  If  some  laymen,  like  M. 
Le  Roy  in  France,  have  come  to  their  support,  their 
theology  is  too  often  faulty  to  make  them  such  for- 
midable adversaries  as  the  former,  whose  ability  can- 
not be  denied.  A  rapid  glance  at  Modernism  shows, 
however,  that  the  Church  has  nothing  to  fear  from 
the  effects  of  this  error  on  the  faithful.  Though  the 
errors  of  the  Abbe  Loisy,  for  instance,  at  first  spread 
among  the  younger  clergy  in  France  and  in  a  limited 
class  of  laymen  sometimes  styled,  with  a  touch  of 
irony,  "the  intellectuals,"  they  have  not  penetrated 
into  the  popular  classes. 

The  public  standing  of  the  Abbe  Loisy  today  well 
illustrates  the  careers  of  the  leaders  in  this  error  of 
Modernism  and  also  shows  the  ineff ectualness  of  their 
attacks  on  the  true  Church.  Though  deprived  of  his 
chair  in  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris,  he  continued 
to  defend  and  propagate  these  harmful  doctrines 
through  the  medium  of  the  press.  Though  his  course 
and  his  books  were  condemned  by  the  Vatican,  he 
nevertheless  continued  to  resist  until  he  finally  in- 
curred the  punishment  of  major  excommunication, 
which,  it  should  be  pointed  out,  is  inflicted  by  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  personally.  But  even  this  warn- 
ing did  not  check  his  determination.  His  best  friends 
were  loathe  to  see  him  continue  his  sad  work  and  a 

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THE  VATICAN 

large  number  of  his  pupils  abandoned  him,  as  had 
been  the  case  with  Lamennais  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century, — Lamennais  who  was  in  every  respect 
his  superior.  Though  quite  outside  of  the  Church,  he 
was  recently  named,  in  odium  fidei,  in  hatred  of  the 
faith,  professor  of  the  College  of  France;  but  his  in- 
fluence is  much  diminished,  as  is  shown  by  the  criti- 
cisms of  his  conduct  made  by  writers  of  note.  The 
Abbe  Loisy  stands  as  a  warning  to  those  who  would 
attack  the  Church,  quand  meme,  as  the  expressive 
French  phrase  puts  it. 

In  Germany,  the  leader  of  the  German  Modernists, 
Father  Schell,  professor  at  Wiirzburg  University, 
who  died  in  May,  1906,  had  such  weight  with  his  dis- 
ciples that  the  Modernists  are  sometimes  called  Schell- 
ians.  The  Vatican  promptly  put  his  works  on  the 
Index.  But  he  did  not  yield.  "It  is  hoped  in  this 
way  to  discredit  me  in  the  minds  of  my  followers,"  he 
wrote  in  a  letter  published  a  month  after  his  death 
and  filed  in  the  Vatican  archives,  "and  even  to  force 
me,  by  my  refusing  to  submit,  to  separate  from  the 
Church.  This  would  have  been  the  triumph  of  my 
opponents,  of  the  leaders  of  Separatism  and  of  the 
reaction  which  rules  in  Rome.  .  .  .  My  numerous 
partisans  do  not  wish  to  separate  from  the  Church, 
in  spite  of  all  the  measures  which  the  reaction  may 
take  to  force  them  to  do  so." 

This  challenge  was  taken  up  in  Easter  Week  of 
1907  by  Monsignor  Commer,  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  who  published  his  able  work 
entitled,  "Schell  and  Advanced  Catholicism,"  "to 

316 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

enlighten  and  show  sincere  Catholics,"  as  he  himself 
said,  "the  right  way  in  the  maze  in  which  the  Modern- 
ists would  entangle  them."  In  the  first  part  of  this 
important  work,  the  author  succeeds  in  rendering  in- 
telligible the  seemingly,  purposely  over-subtle  argu- 
ment of  Schell;  and  then,  in  the  second  part — the 
most  valuable  portion  of  the  book — he  examines  the 
alarming  tendencies  which  show  themselves  among 
German  Catholics, — Reform  Catholicism,  Progres- 
sive Catholicism,  Radical  Catholicism,  et  cetera. 
This  work,  of  which  the  first  edition  was  sold  off  in 
three  months — a  second  and  enlarged  edition  ap- 
peared in  January,  1908, — stirred  up  a  tempest  in 
theological  centers.  Monsignor  Commer  was  called 
"a  mere  pamphleteer,"  "a  theological  hyena,"  said 
"to  be  quite  lacking  in  Christian  charity,"  "not  to  be 
acquainted  with  German  affairs,"  et  cetera.  Pius  X 
encouraged  Monsignor  Commer  in  his  good  work  and 
sent  him  on  June  14,  1907,  a  laudatory  letter,  a  copy 
of  which  was  also  transmitted  to  the  papal  nuncio  at 
Munich,  with  instructions  to  communicate  it  to  the 
German  bishops,  that  they  might  reproduce  it  in  the 
various  Catholic  journals  and  so  give  it  as  wide  pub- 
licity as  possible.  Thereupon,  some  of  the  Catholic 
clergy  of  Bavaria  addressed  a  letter  of  protest  to  their 
bishops  against  the  official  publication  of  this  docu- 
ment, which,  they  said,  contained  unjust  reflections 
on  them  as  good  Catholics.  This  letter  was  given  to 
the  papers  on  August  6  of  the  same  year  and  it  called 
forth  replies  from  laymen  who  very  deftly  put  these 
recalcitrant  ecclesiastics  in  their  right  place.  A  few 

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THE  VATICAN 

days  later,  at  the  congress  of  German  Catholics  held 
at  Wiirzburg,  the  president,  Herr  Fehrenback,  ad- 
dressed them  with  severity  and  was  warmly  ap- 
plauded: "Once  the  Church  has  spoken,  the  only 
thing  to  do  is  to  accept  the  decision,  whatever  it  may 
be.  This  may  be  hard,  sometimes,  but  it  is  necessary. 
Anyway,  it  is  not  admissible  that  theologians  and 
publicists,  however  devoted  they  may  be  to  the  cause 
of  religion,  should  permit  themselves  to  discuss  the 
decisions  of  the  Index.  Such  an  attitude  is  intoler- 
able." 

All  this  shows  how  wide-spread  the  evil  had  become 
outside  of  Italy  and  how  necessary  it  was  to  condemn 
Modernism  by  an  official  act  of  the  Pope, — which  was 
not  slow  to  come,  especially  as  Italy  itself  was  also 
suff ering  from  the  contagion.  Even  the  novel  had 
been  employed  in  Italy  to  spread  the  pernicious  error, 
for  instance,  Fogazzaro's  "The  Saint."  But  it  was 
the  Abbate  Murri  who  showed  himself  to  be  the  most 
ardent  propagator  of  the  evil.  Admonished  at  first, 
then  condemned  by  the  bishops,  this  ecclesiastic  was 
finally  also  removed  from  the  Church  by  a  sentence 
of  major  excommunication.  Like  the  Abbe  Loisy, 
the  Abbate  Murri  persisted  in  his  rebellion,  until  his 
friends,  seconded  by  all  the  enemies  of  religion,  chose 
him  to  represent  a  district  in  the  Italian  chamber  of 
deputies.  But  his  career  in  this  new  role  has  not  been 
a  success,  and,  although  the  Italian  chamber  contains 
many  enemies  of  the  Church,  the  Abbate  Murri  has 
been  coldly  received  by  his  colleagues  and  his  speeches 
have  often  met  with  jeers. 

318 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

In  the  United  States,  Modernism  has  not  made 
much  progress.  The  reason  is,  probably,  because 
American  Catholics  are  more  practical  and  less  ideal- 
istic than  those  of  the  Old  World.  Religious  dreams, 
which  are  like  castles  built  of  cards  or  philosophical 
systems  in  vogue  today  and  tomorrow  replaced  by 
other  systems,  appear  to  Americans  scarcely  worth 
their  while  and  are  let  pass  by  almost  unnoticed. 
Perhaps  an  article  in  the  North  American  Review  for 
July,  1909,  an  apology  for  Modernism,  is  the  most 
notable  instance  of  the  error  having  attracted  much 
attention  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  This  arti- 
cle was  written  by  a  Protestant  and  called  forth  a 
reply  from  Archbishop  Ireland,  a  justification  of  the 
Bull  Pascendi,  in  which  Pius  X  deals  so  ably  with 
Modernism,  "both  from  a  theological  and  from  a 
philosophical  point  of  view,  unmasking  this  Modernist 
error  and  throwing  it  outside  of  Catholicism  into  the 
domain  of  pure  fantasy."  The  Vatican  saw  with 
real  pleasure  such  an  able  manifestation  against  this 
heresy. 

South  America  and  the  European  countries,  other 
than  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  England,  have 
not  been  seriously  affected  by  this  error,  made  up  as 
it  is  from  all  the  old  heresies,  as  the  bull  of  Pius  X 
so  well  points  out. 

In  France,  the  idea  found  a  redoubtable  adversary 
in  Monsignor  Elie  Blanc,  the  eminent  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Lyons, 
where  he  has  taught  with  ability  for  the  past  thirty 
years.  He  has  published  in  his  own  philosophical 

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review,  La  Pensee  Contemporaine,  a  series  of  most 
remarkable  articles  entitled,  "Concerning  the  En- 
cyclical," in  which  he  first  aims  to  show  how  these 
Modernist  ideas  found  their  way  into  men's  minds 
and  crept  into  almost  all  Catholic  centers  in  France. 

"This  is  easily  explained,"  he  says,  "if  we  remember  two 
things:  the  weakness  of  our  old  philosophical  studies,  and, 
secondly,  the  continued  and  persistent  influence  exercised  on 
the  minds  of  the  new  generation  by  public  instruction.  The 
universities  of  France  have  long  been  open  to  all  sorts  of 
doctrines.  Its  new  philosophical  systems  came  from  Ger- 
many or  England,  or  even  from  other  lands,  and  these  sys- 
tems were  received  with  a  sympathetic  curiosity.  Just  as 
foreigners  of  distinction  were  given  a  kindly  welcome,  so  were 
their  ideas,  though  quite  opposed  to  our  national  spirit,  or 
to  the  genius  of  our  race  and  tongue,  which  is  so  clear  and 
logical.  We  even  added  to  the  fame  of  foreign  thinkers,  and 
gave  them  praise  that  they  did  not  always  deserve.  We  be- 
came their  translators,  their  disciples,  their  popularizers. 
Nor  did  we  always  stop  here ;  we  sometimes  went  further  than 
the  originator  of  the  ideas  which  we  made  our  own.  Among 
some  of  our  young  university  professors,  it  was  a  sort  of 
perpetual  public  competition,  and  the  most  audacious  won  the 
palm ;  the  inventor  of  the  newest,  the  most  original  and  also 
the  most  eccentric  hypothesis  was  given  the  crown.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  these  hypotheses  were  of  course  con- 
trary to  common  sense,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  traditional 
philosophy  and  Catholic  faith." 

Modernism  is  not  simply  a  single  heresy,  attacking 
but  one  dogma,  one  point  of  Catholic  faith ;  it  is  rather 
a  collection  of  anti- Catholic  theories,  combating  the 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

affirmations  of  the  Church  in  every  branch  of  its 
teachings.  Already,  on  July  3, 1907,  all  these  hereti- 
cal propositions  had  been  condemned  by  the  decree 
of  the  Holy  Office,  Lamentabilij  and  most  of  them 
had  also  been  condemned  by  the  Council  of  the  Vati- 
can and  by  Pius  IX.  It  is  very  difficult  to  seize  the 
general  plan  because  these  ideas  are  spread  about  at 
different  epochs  and  places  by  men  holding  different 
opinions.  It  is  admitted,  however,  by  every  one  that 
the  encyclical  which  again  condemned  these  theories 
contains  an  admirable  synthesis  of  them  which  in  itself 
is  a  preliminary  refutation  of  them. 

In  this  solemn  act  of  his  sovereign  majesty,  Pius  X 
showed  himself  really  aided  by  the  Holy  Ghost  in 
laying  bare  this  Boeotian  theory,  and  in  pursuing  it 
and  condemning  it  in  its  various  transformations. 
The  Holy  Father's  immortal  Encyclical,  Pascendi 
Dominici  Gregis,  dated  September  8,  1907,  was  a 
revelation  to  many  Catholics,  who,  though  anxious 
over  the  audacity  of  the  innovators,  were  far  from 
suspecting  the  extent  of  the  ravages  which  their  ne- 
farious ideas  had  made  in  many  good  souls. 

A  simple  analysis  of  the  Encyclical  Pascendi  will 
show  clearly  what  Modernism  really  is.  The  docu- 
ment is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  treats  of 
the  Modernist  errors  and  shows  the  logical  link  con- 
necting them  all  together.  The  second  part  indicates 
their  causes  and  the  third  has  to  do  with  the  possible 
remedies  for  the  evils. 

In  philosophy,  the  Modernists  profess  agnosticism, 
immanency,  and  evolution,  whose  erroneous  princi- 

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pies  they  apply  to  dogma,  to  tradition,  to  the  creed, 
to  the  Scriptures,  to  the  Church,  to  history,  to  apolo- 
getics, in  a  word,  to  the  whole  of  Catholicism,  which 
they  deform  and  destroy. 

Agnosticism,  which  springs  from  the  doctrines  of 
Kant  and  the  Positivists,  holds  that — the  quoted 
passages  are  from  the  text  of  the  encyclical — "human 
reason,  rigorously  confined  to  a  circle  of  phenomena, 
that  is,  to  things  as  they  appear  and  precisely  as  they 
appear,  has  neither  the  faculty  nor  the  right  to  cross 
its  limits.  Human  reason  is  incapable,  therefore,  of 
mounting  up  to  God  and  of  learning,  by  human 
means,  of  His  existence." 

"Let  him  understand  this  who  can.  But  one  thing  is  per- 
fectly clear  and  settled  for  the  Modernists,  viz.,  that  science 
must  be  atheistic,  as  likewise  history,  that  there  is  no  place 
in  one  or  the  other  for  anything  but  phenomena.  God  and 
the  divine  are  banished  therefrom." 

Religious  immanency,  according  to  them,  springs 
from  a  sort  of  intimate  sentiment  which  itself  is  en- 
gendered by  the  need  of  the  divine.  This  need  of  the 
divine  awakens  in  "the  soul,  leaning  towards  religion, 
a  peculiar  sentiment,  which  has  the  property  of  envel- 
oping God,  both  as  object  and  intimate  cause,  and 
uniting  Him,  as  it  were,  with  man."  Such,  for  the 
Modernist,  is  faith,  and  in  faith  thus  understood  is 
the  beginning  of  all  religion. 

"This  sentiment,  which  appears  in  the  conscience,  and 
God,  who  manifests  Himself  in  this  sentiment,  though  some- 

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THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

what  obscurely,  to  the  soul, — is  this  not  a  revelation  or  at 
least  the  beginning  of  a  revelation?  Since  God  is  both  the 
cause  and  the  object  of  faith,  if  one  looks  carefully  into 
the  matter,  one  finds  revelation  coming  from  God  and  bear- 
ing on  God,  that  is  to  say,  God  is  at  one  and  the  same  time 
revealer  and  revealed.  Hence  the  absurd  doctrine  of  the 
Modernists  that  all  religion  is  at  the  same  time  both  natural 
and  supernatural ;  hence  their  belief  that  conscience  and  reve- 
lation are  of  equal  value;  hence,  too,  the  law  which  declares 
religious  consciousness  a  universal  rule,  entirely  the  equal  of 
revelation  and  to  which  everything  else  should  be  subjected, 
even  supreme  authority  in  its  triple  manifestation, — doc- 
trine, service  and  discipline." 

But  the  simple  truth  is  surely  clearer  than  all  these 
metaphysical  obscurities,  and  the  encyclical  is  chari- 
table in  treating  such  ideas  as  "wanderings."  It  is 
easy  to  see  what  would  become  of  nature  and  history 
thus  presented  to  the  religious  consciousness,  which 
would  then  depend  wholly  on  itself.  The  religious 
consciousness  will  transfigure  this  or  that  phenomenon 
of  nature,  this  or  that  personage  of  history,  until  it 
ends  by  making  divine  the  object  so  transfigured;  but 
this  same  religious  consciousness  would  at  the  same 
time  disfigure  it.  And  Modernists  do  not  hesitate  to 
submit  to  this  destructive  method  the  very  person  of 
Our  Saviour.  Idealized  by  religious  consciousness, 
Jesus  Christ  would  lose  the  reality  which  history  de- 
mands. Faith  would,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  have 
transfigured  him  in  the  religious  order,  and  disfigured 
him  in  the  historical  order.  "This  fashion  of  reason- 
ing will  strike  as  strange  the  man  of  even  ordinary 

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common  sense;  but  this  is  the  Modernist's  system  of 
criticism." 

According  to  the  Modernists,  all  natural  and  super- 
natural religions  spring  from  the  religious  sentiment 
immanent  in  man,  and  the  Catholic  religion  is  no  ex- 
ception to  the  rule. 

"  'Its  cradle,'  say  the  Modernists,  'was  the  consciousness 
of  Jesus  Christ,  a  man  of  exquisite  nature  such  as  never  was 
before  and  never  will  be  again.'  It  is  born  of  no  other  prin- 
ciple than  vital  immanence.  One  is  stupefied  at  such  an  au- 
dacious assertion,  at  such  off-hand  blasphemy.  Nor  is  it 
the  incredulous  alone  who  utter  such  bold  assertions.  These 
men  are  Catholics,  with  many  priests  among  them,  who  pub- 
lish these  statements  to  the  world  with  ostentation.  To 
think  that  it  is  with  such  inanities  that  they  boast  that  they 
will  renew  the  Church !  Nor  has  this  explanation  anything  to 
do  with  the  old  error  which  endowed  human  nature  with  a  sort 
of  supernatural  power.  This  innovation  is  here  far  out- 
stripped. In  the  man  Jesus  Christ,  as  well  as  in  ourselves, 
our  holy  religion  is  only  a  proper  and  spontaneous  fruit  of 
nature.  Can  there  be  anything  that  more  radically  destroys 
the  supernatural  order?" 

In  the  eyes  of  the  Modernist,  therefore,  faith  and 
all  religion  spring  from  our  own  "religious  ex- 
perience." Tradition,  that  is,  the  authority  of  the 
Fathers,  of  the  councils,  of  the  Popes,  has  nothing  to 
do  with  it.  Tradition  is  simply  a  communication 
made  to  others  by  one  favored  with  an  original  and 
extraordinary  religious  experience. 

The  third  dominant  principle  of  Modernist  the- 
ology is  Absolute  Evolution  or  Evolutionism  which 

324 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

it  has  brought  from  the  philosophical  domain  into  the 
religious  domain.  The  Modernist  holds  that  every- 
thing— nature,  man,  ideas,  truth,  religions  and  even 
Christianity — is  subject  to  the  laws  of  evolution. 
Nothing  is  more  false,  for  in  nature  everything  is  not 
subject  to  evolution,  as,  for  instance,  the  very  essence 
of  things;  and  if  we  consider  truth,  we  find  it  abso- 
lutely immutable  in  itself,  so  that  faith,  which  is  based 
on  divine  truth  itself,  is,  consequently,  immutable  in 
its  teachings.  Therefore,  the  sacred  person  of  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  has  not  been  subject  to  any  evo- 
lution; His  thoughts  have  not  become  more  precise 
with  the  lapse  of  time.  He  is  not  unrecognizable; 
science  and  history  find  in  Him  something  more  than 
man.  Dogmas,  and  the  sacraments  are  not,  there- 
fore, only  symbols;  Holy  Writ  is  the  word  of  God, 
and  the  inspiration  which  produced  it  is  not  alone  the 
need  which  every  believer  feels  to  communicate  his 
faith  by  the  written  or  spoken  word.  The  Church  is 
not  only  "the  fruit  of  the  collective  consciousness  of 
the  faithful,"  but  it  is  a  foundation  established  by 
Jesus  Christ,  and  has  the  right  to  teach  and  govern 
itself  independently  of  civil  power. 

As  reformers,  the  Modernists  show  uncommon  pre- 
sumption. "There  is  nothing,  absolutely  nothing,  in 
Catholicism  which  they  do  not  attack,"  says  the  en- 
cyclical. They  demand  that  all  the  ecclesiastical 
sciences  taught  in  the  seminaries — scholastic  philoso- 
phy, theology,  the  history  of  the  Church — be  modified 
in  accordance  with  their  ideas;  "that  the  Roman 
Congregations,  especially  those  which  have  the  most 

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THE  VATICAN 

to  do  with  their  doctrines,  be  changed  and  that  the 
clergy  conform  their  ideas  and  acts  to  Modernist 
principles";  and  finally,  there  are  among  the  Modern- 
ists those  "who,  echoing  the  ideas  of  their  Protestant 
teachers,  desire  the  suppression  of  ecclesiastical  celib- 
acy." 

"Now,"  continues  the  Encyclical,  "taking  in  at  one 
glance  the  whole  Modernist  system,  who  can  be  sur- 
prised that  we  pronounce  it  the  synthesis  of  every 
heresy?  If  one  were  to  go  to  the  trouble  to  collect 
all  the  errors  which  were  ever  brought  together  against 
the  faith  and  to  concentrate  the  substance  and  essence 
of  them  in  a  single  one,  they  would  all  be  embraced 
by  Modernism.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  they  ruin 
Catholicism,  for  they  really  destroy  all  religion.  The 
Rationalists  who  applaud  these  Modernists,  do  well, 
for  in  them  are  to  be  found  the  most  powerful  auxili- 
aries of  Rationalism." 

The  second  part  of  the  encyclical  is  devoted  to  the 
causes  of  Modernism,  and  here  His  Holiness  espe- 
cially points  out  the  pride,  ignorance  and  the  zeal 
of  the  Modernists  in  spreading  their  theories  and 
shamelessly  defending  those  of  their  number  who 
have  been  censured  by  the  Church. 

In  the  third  and  final  part  of  this  noble  document, 
the  remedy  for  all  these  evils  is  considered.  His 
Holiness  urges  bishops,  pastors  and  professors  to 
show  zeal  in  denouncing  and  proscribing  these  errors. 
The  professors  are  directed  to  devote  their  attention 
in  philosophy  especially  to  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas, 
and  in  theology  to  lay  more  stress  on  theology  itself 

326 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

than  on  the  history  of  theology.  All  those  who  are 
connected  with  Modernism  or  who  show  in  their  in- 
struction any  trace  of  the  innovation  should  be  forced 
to  resign  their  chairs.  Theological  students  with  any 
such  tendencies  should  not  be  admitted  into  holy 
orders,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  away  from 
them  all  books  favorable  to  Modernism.  Further- 
more, the  bishops  should  condemn  all  publications  and 
books  of  the  kind  printed  or  circulated  in  their  dio- 
ceses and  should  remove  them  from  the  homes  of  the 
faithful.  Catholic  booksellers  should  be  directed  not 
to  expose  for  sale  or  to  sell  Modernist  works  under 
penalty  of  having  their  shops  condemned  as  non- 
Catholic.  The  bishops  should  also  appoint  in  all  their 
dioceses  censors  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  examine 
all  manuscripts  which  may  not  be  printed  without 
the  permission  of  the  ordinary  and  a  doctrinal  vigi- 
lance council  whose  role  is  "to  follow  very  attentively 
every  trace  of  Modernism  found  in  periodicals  or  in 
the  teaching  body  and  to  take  prudent  and  efficacious 
measures  to  protect  the  clergy  and  youth  therefrom." 
This  council  should  also  have  a  care  for  pious  local 
traditions  and  the  veneration  of  holy  relics. 

Pius  X  closes  his  encyclical  with  these  beautiful 
words:  "May  the  virtue  of  Jesus  Christ,  Author 
and  Perf ecter  of  our  faith,  be  yours ;  may  the  Immac- 
ulate Virgin,  destroyer  of  every  heresy,  aid  you  with 
her  prayers.  We,  as  a  proof  of  our  affection  and  as 
a  pledge  of  divine  consolation  for  you  in  the  midst 
of  your  adversaries,  accord  to  you,  with  all  our  heart, 
as  well  as  to  your  clergy  and  your  people,  our  apos- 
22  327 


THE  VATICAN 

tolic  benediction.  Given  at  Rome,  near  St.  Peter, 
September  8,  1907,  in  the  fifth  year  of  our  Pontifi- 
cate, Pius  X,  Pope." 

This  memorable  encyclical,  which,  from  a  dogmatic 
point  of  view,  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  important 
papal  documents  of  recent  times,  throws  such  a  bright 
light  into  the  hidden  corners  of  Modernism  as  not  only 
to  unmask  it,  but  to  successfully  refute  its  many 
errors.  Pius  X  has  thus  saved  our  Christian  faith 
from  the  grave  peril  of  being  deformed  and  destroyed. 
He  also  attaches  the  greatest  importance  to  this  good 
work  being  vigorously  followed  up  and  the  studious 
Catholic  youth  everywhere  protected  against  its 
errors.  This,  consequently,  is  one  of  the  dominant 
cares  of  the  Vatican  of  today. 

Still  another  error,  this  time  born  of  ignorance  and 
fanaticism,  has  in  our  time  afflicted  the  Church  in  a 
country  where  it  was  the  least  expected,  in  Poland, 
among  the  Uniats,  who,  as  has  been  seen  elsewhere 
in  this  volume,  showed  themselves  veritable  heroes 
in  the  defense  of  their  Roman  faith  against  the 
persecution  of  the  Orthodox  Greeks.  We  refer  to 
Mariavitism,  founded  by  Maria  Kowalska,  whom  the 
people  consider  to  be  "immaculate  and  a  mediatrix 
between  God  and  men,"  quite  like  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary.  Several  priests,  and  among  them  Father 
Kowalski,  a  brother  or  relative  of  Mother  Maria 
Kowalska,  have  gone  over  to  this  absurd  heresy,  whose 
hidden  aim  is  to  bring  about  a  separation  from  Rome 
and  to  create  a  little  religious  kingdom  for  the  arro- 
gant leaders  in  this  incipient  schism.  In  fact,  the 

328 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

Slavonic  Catholics  are  beginning  to  be  seriously  wor- 
ried over  the  dangers  to  their  faith  from  this  new  sect. 
Recent  statistics  show  that  its  followers  were  50,000 
in  number  in  January,  1907,  whereas  a  year  later 
they  had  risen  to  138,000.  The  Catholic  apostate 
priests  who  have  gone  over  to  Mariavitism  are  now 
thirty-three.  The  Russian  government,  which  is  al- 
ways hostile  to  Catholicism,  and  faithful  to  the  adage, 
"Divide  that  you  may  reign,"  shows  itself  very  favor- 
ably disposed  towards  the  new  religion.  In  fact,  in 
December,  1908,  the  St.  Petersburg  authorities  re- 
ceived very  warmly  the  unfortunate  Priests  Kowalski 
and  Prochwieski,  and  Mother  Kowalska,  the  founders 
of  the  new  sect,  when  they  went  to  the  capital  to  ask 
for  official  recognition  of  their  pretended  "church." 
Several  members  of  the  Douma  came  to  the  aid  of 
the  renegades,  and  a  functionary  of  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs,  M.  Rovinsky,  went  so  far  as,  in  the 
presence  of  the  two  apostate  priests  and  before  a 
public  audience,  to  pronounce  Mariavitism  "the  finest 
flower  of  Catholicism."  He  took  advantage  of  the 
credulity  of  his  hearers  and  affirmed  that  there  were 
already  200,000  Mariavites  and,  furthermore,  that 
more  than  300,000  Catholic  Poles  made  no  secret  of 
their  sympathy  for  the  new  religion.  Maria  Ko- 
walska, "Mother  and  Founder  of  the  Mariavites," 
was  called  by  M.  Rovinsky  "the  Polish  Joan  of  Arc," 
whose  condemnation  by  the  Holy  See  was  obtained 
by  a  payment  of  15,000  rubles  from  the  bishops,  the 
Mariavites  being  unable  to  offer  the  Pope  more  than 
10,000  rubles!  These  lies,  it  should  be  noted,  were 

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THE  VATICAN 

circulated  at  the  moment  when  efforts  were  being 
made  in  Poland  and  Russia  to  incite  public  opinion 
against  Rome. 

In  accordance  with  their  statutes,  the  Mariavites 
profess  all  the  dogmas  and  beliefs  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  But  they  felt,  for  some  reason,  that  they 
should  be  separated  from  the  Roman  hierarchy. 
Their  plan  for  recruiting  and  instructing  their  young 
clergy  differs,  however,  from  the  Roman  system. 
Thus,  a  young  man  who  would  become  a  priest,  and 
whose  conduct  leads  his  superiors  to  consider  him 
worthy  of  this  career,  is  first  required  to  pass  some 
years  in  parish  duties,  where  he  will  be  formed  for 
the  ministry.  After  that,  he  is  a  novice  under  the 
guidance  of  a  master  chosen  by  the  master-general. 
Next  he  studies  the  constitution,  the  liturgy  and  the 
asceticism  of  Mariavitism,  and  finally  becomes  a  regu- 
lar priest.  We  are  not  told,  however,  by  whom  he 
is  ordained,  although  Father  Kowalski  has  announced 
that  the  Mariavites  will  soon  have  their  own  bishop, 
doubtless  some  pseudo-bishop,  who  will  be  conse- 
crated by  an  Old  Catholic  or  a  Jansenist  bishop. 

The  Mariavites  have  also  a  congregation  of  women, 
the  mother-chapter  being  at  Plock.  It  is  under  the 
direction  of  Mother  Kowalska  herself,  and  is  said  to 
be  in  a  prosperous  condition. 

Although  the  Mariavites  pretend  to  keep  intact 
the  Catholic  liturgy,  they  have  substituted  the  Polish 
language  for  the  liturgical  Latin  and  have  instituted 
in  honor  of  the  Holy  Virgin  a  festival  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  foundation  of  their  sect.  The  canon  law 

330 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

has  also  suffered  in  their  hands,  for  their  superior- 
general  may  accord  matrimonial  dispensations.  A 
council  composed  of  three  members  decides  cases  of 
divorce  and  authorizes  the  innocent  party  to  contract 
a  second  marriage.  The  great  latitude  left  to  this 
Council  of  Three  on  this  point  is  shown  in  the  word- 
ing of  the  clause  of  the  statutes  bearing  thereon, 
which  is  as  follows:  "Nullity  of  marriage  may  be 
pronounced  in  cases  where  the  union  was  not  con- 
tracted in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
canon  law  in  vogue  among  the  Mariavites." 

The  sect  affects  an  extreme  austerity  of  manners, 
which,  joined  to  their  creation  of  a  number  of  eco- 
nomic and  social  institutions,  has  gained  them  many 
proselytes  among  the  working  and  agricultural 
classes.  At  Lody,  they  have  erected  workingmen's 
houses  which  can  shelter  two  hundred  families.  Ref- 
uges, schools,  relief  funds,  et  cetera,  exist  in  every 
parish.  Their  priests  go  about  bare-foot  in  country 
and  village,  and  have  penetrated  into  Lithuania  in 
the  guise  of  Franciscans. 

Naturally,  the  Catholic  Church  could  not  remain 
a  passive  witness  of  these  monstrous  errors,  so  full 
of  perils  to  the  very  faith  of  the  Polish  people. 
First  came  an  official  document  from  the  Bishopric 
of  Plock,  which  condemned  the  Mariavites  as  heretics 
and  schismatics,  because  they  repudiated  the  author- 
ity of  the  Pope,  announced  the  birth  of  the  anti- 
Christ  as  an  accomplished  fact  and  proclaimed  their 
founder,  Mother  Kowalska,  "immaculate  and  the 
mediatrix  between  God  and  man."  Then  Rome 

331 


THE  VATICAN 

raised  its  voice.  A  circular  from  the  Vatican,  dated 
September  4,  1904,  denounced  the  sect.  Thereupon, 
Kowalski  and  Prochwieski  went  to  Rome  to  excul- 
pate themselves  and  signed  a  retractation  in  their 
own  name  and  in  that  of  Mother  Kowalska.  But  no 
sooner  had  they  returned  to  Poland  than  this  retrac- 
tation was  itself  retracted !  This  example  of  double- 
dealing  was  answered  on  the  part  of  the  Vatican  by 
a  "reprobation"  and  an  order  to  suppress  the  associ- 
ation of  the  Mariavites.  But  as  Maria  Kowalska  and 
John  Kowalski  persisted  in  their  errors,  the  Sovereign 
Pontiff  inflicted  on  them  major  excommunication. 
Thereupon,  they  published  a  defense  of  their  conduct, 
putting  it  in  the  Russian  language,  which  in  itself  was 
a  significant  fact. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  Vatican  the  Slavonic  Catholic 
press  has  not  yet  given  enough  attention  to  this 
Mariavite  movement.  Too  many  people  have  simply 
smiled  at  it.  Only  a  short  time  ago  it  was  satirized 
in  a  piece  at  the  Warsaw  theater.  But  the  visit  paid 
to  St.  Petersburg  by  Kowalski  opened  people's  eyes 
to  the  real  significance  of  the  movement  and  to  its 
real  dangers.  At  last  it  was  perceived  that  the  Rus- 
sian government  is  using  Mariavitism  as  a  weapon 
against  the  Catholic  clergy.  The  movement  seems  to 
point  towards  a  schism,  which  the  politicians  are 
doing  their  best  to  bring  about,  for  a  schism  would  be 
a  death-blow  to  Polish  nationality. 

Fortunately,  these  modern  heresies  do  not  seem 
destined  to  trouble  the  Church  very  long  and  will  not 
leave  behind  them  very  profound  traces.  American- 

332 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

ism  was  stopped  at  its  very  birth.  Modernism  has 
no  external  organization  in  the  nature  of  a  Church, 
that  is,  a  body  of  faithful,  chapels,  ceremonies,  a 
clergy  of  its  own  separated  from  Rome  and  practices 
springing  from  faith.  Under  such  conditions,  it  can 
only  hope  to  be  perpetuated  through  the  various  ex- 
isting philosophical  systems  which  interest  philosoph- 
ical minds  alone.  Though  Old  Catholicism,  thanks 
to  state  aid,  seemed  for  a  while  to  have  force  and  life, 
it  has  slowly  declined  as  this  state  aid  has  declined, 
until  today  it  is  practically  dead.  And  what  will  be 
the  outcome  of  Mariavitism?  It  is  not  probable  that 
this  movement,  especially  as  it  is  limited  to  a  small 
part  of  Poland,  will  last  very  long.  It  is  pretty  safe 
to  say,  therefore,  that  the  present  attacks  on  faith 
will,  in  another  century,  be  little  else  than  simple  his- 
torical memories. 

Unfortunately,  this  was  not  the  case  with  the  here- 
sies of  the  past.  The  Orthodox  Greek  schism,  Jan- 
senism, and  Protestantism  still  exist  today.  It  may 
be  interesting  to  know  the  attitude  of  the  Church 
toward  these  dissident  Christian  religions,  as  well  as 
toward  Judaism,  Islamism,  the  oriental  religions,  and 
the  rest  of  paganism. 

As  regards  heterodox  doctrines,  the  Catholic 
Church  is  and  should  be  necessarily  uncompromising, 
since  it  holds  that  it  alone  possesses  the  supernatural 
and  integral  truth  received  direct  from  its  Divine 
Founder,  Our  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ.  It  has  there- 
fore always  condemned  and  will  ever  continue  to  con- 
demn all  opinions  contrary  to  its  faith  and  will  ever 

333 


THE  VATICAN 

strive  to  preserve  intact  the  supernatural  truths  of 
which  it  has  the  guardianship  and  which  all  men  should 
believe,  for  to  it  hath  the  Divine  Saviour  said,  in  the 
person  of  the  Apostle:  "He  that  heareth  you, 
heareth  me."  (St.  Luke,  10:16.) 

But  this  uncompromising  attitude  in  matters  of 
doctrine,  the  Church  easily  abandons  where  individ- 
uals are  concerned.  The  Church  recognizes  the  fact 
that  many  among  the  dissidents  are  honest  in  their 
opinions  and  sincerely  believe  that  theirs  is  the  real 
religion.  And  because  they  are  baptized,  the  Catho- 
lic Church  considers  them  its  children,  children  who, 
alas!  are  separated  from  their  mother,  but  children 
whom  this  mother  should  love  and  whose  return  to 
the  only  fold  of  the  true  shepherd — the  Catholic 
Church — may  still  be  hoped  for.  Among  heretics 
and  schismatics  there  are  some  who  have  preserved 
a  large  number  of  the  truths  which  form  the  inviolable 
deposit  of  the  faith,  and  a  still  larger  number  of  essen- 
tial practices  established  by  Christ  for  the  sanctifica- 
tion  of  souls.  They  are  very  near  the  Church  and 
the  Church  hopes  to  see  them  return  among  the  first. 
Such  are  the  Orthodox  Greeks  and  the  Jansenists, 
who  have  preserved  the  episcopacy,  the  priesthood, 
the  essential  rites,  and  consequently,  the  sacraments 
and  particularly  the  Real  Presence  in  the  Eucharist. 
At  the  time  of  their  separation  from  Rome,  they  had 
with  them  veritably  consecrated  bishops,  who  pos- 
sessed all  the  powers  of  their  high  order.  By  re- 
maining faithful  to  the  rites  and  the  purposes  of  the 
Church  in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  et 

884 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

cetera,  these  bishops  could  validly  consecrate  other 
bishops,  though  illicitly,  acting,  as  they  did,  outside 
of  the  Church.  Thus  have  these  sects  perpetuated 
a  veritable  episcopacy  that  has  continued,  by  the 
ordination  of  priests,  a  regular  priesthood.  They 
enjoy,  therefore,  Holy  Mass,  the  Eucharist  and  con- 
firmation. In  Russia,  these  sacramental  graces  and 
a  love  for  the  Holy  Virgin  keep  up  among  the  peo- 
ple a  touching  piety.  But  the  Russian  priests  and 
popes  are  lacking  in  a  dignified  life  and  in  education, 
so  that,  if  we  except  the  ritual  practices  which  they 
perform  with  exactitude,  their  faithful  are  not  very 
well  cared  for.  The  upper  clergy,  or  "black  clergy," 
whence  come  the  bishops,  lead  a  life  of  celibacy  and 
cultivate  the  ecclesiastical  sciences.  This  class  has 
produced  some  men  of  mark,  who  have  been  highly 
praised  by  the  distinguished  Cardinal  Pitra,  so  well 
known  for  his  valuable  historical  researches  concern- 
ing the  ancient  Greek  church  in  the  libraries  of  the 
old  Russian  convents. 

It  is  the  followers  of  the  Greek  Rites  who  have 
separated  from  Rome,  who  have  assumed  the  title  of 
"Orthodox."  But  the  truth  is  that  there  is  but  one 
way  of  being  orthodox,  and  that  is  by  union  with 
Rome,  where  is  alone  the  veritable  doctrine  of  Christ. 
Consequently,  the  only  real  orthodox  members  of 
the  Greek  church  are  those  known  as  the  Uniat 
Greeks,  or  the  Catholic  Greeks,  who  have  not  broken 
with  Rome;  and  they  are  many.  But  the  other 
Greeks  are  schismatics  in  the  eyes  of  the  Vatican,  and, 
what  is  more,  are  stained  by  a  heresy,  since  they  refuse 

335 


THE  VATICAN 

to  accept  the  Roman  view  of  the  Holy  Trinity, — that 
the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Son  as  well  as 
from  the  Father,  the  Western  version  of  the  Nicene 
Creed. 

During  a  recent  winter,  a  prelate  of  the  Roman 
court  met  quite  often  in  an  antiquary's  shop  an  Ortho- 
dox Greek  bishop  of  Russian  nationality,  a  man  of 
high  artistic  cultivation  and  an  excellent  connoisseur. 
Very  friendly  relations  quickly  sprang  up  between 
the  two  prelates  because  of  a  common  love  of  antiqui- 
ties. They  never  spoke  of  their  diif  erences  of  reli- 
gion, and  the  prelate  always  addressed  the  bishop  as 
"Monsignor"  and  "Your  Grandeur,"  which  evidently 
pleased  him  very  much. 

"Then  you  recognize  us  as  being  veritable  bishops," 
the  Russian  finally  remarked  one  day. 

"Certainly,  Monsignor;  and  are  you  not  really 
such?  If  some  day,  as  I  should  so  much  like  to  see 
happen,  you  should  return  to  Catholic  unity  and 
should  ask  the  Pope  to  receive  you  among  his  chil- 
dren, not  only  would  he  welcome  you  with  the  greatest 
kindness,  but  he  would  assign  you  a  rank,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  date  of  your  consecration,  among  the 
United  Greek  Catholic  bishops.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  about  this;  for,  in  1870,  did  not  Pius  IX  invite 
to  the  last  council  of  the  Vatican,  in  accordance  with 
the  constant  usage  of  the  Church,  all  the  separated 
Greek  bishops,  thus  recognizing  the  validity  of  their 
consecration?" 

"That  is  quite  true,"  he  responded;  "it  is  too  bad 
we  cannot  come  to  an  understanding  and  that  we 

336 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

form  two  churches,  which  is  not  in  accordance  with 
the  wishes  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  for  did  He  not 
say  in  His  prayer  to  His  Father,  referring  to  His 
disciples,  'That  they  all  may  be  one,  as  thou,  Father, 
in  me,  and  I  in  thee'?"  (St.  John,  17:21.) 

"You  are  perfectly  right,"  answered  the  prelate; 
"it  would  be  illogical  if  it  were  otherwise,  because  if 
Christ  had  founded  two  similar  churches,  one  of  them 
would  have  been  useless;  and  if  He  had  made  them 
different,  opposed  in  doctrine,  one  of  them  would 
have  been  false,  and  Christ  would  not  have  been  true. 
It  is  impossible  that  He  could  have  said  to  the  one, 
'Believe  that  I  am  in  the  Holy  Eucharist,'  and  to  the 
other,  'Believe  that  I  am  not  in  it.'  Now,  Monsignor, 
please  note  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  which  left  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  but 
the  contrary;  it  is  you  who  left  us,  and  at  an  epoch 
much  later  than  apostolic  times,  under  the  patriarch- 
ate of  Constantinople  in  1053.  We  claim  as  ours 
the  ancient  and  illustrious  Greek  church  which  pro- 
duced such  grand  men  as  John  Chrysostom,  Atha- 
nasius,  and  Basil  the  Great." 

"That  is  all  quite  true,"  replied  the  Russian  bishop; 
"yet  we  are  separated  by  so  little,  that  with  a  slight 
effort  on  both  sides,  we  could  easily  come  to  an  under- 
standing and  unite  again.  For  instance,  though  not 
submissive  to  the  Pope,  we  are  quite  ready  to  recog- 
nize him  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  and  the  patri- 
arch of  all  the  West;  just  as  our  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  is  the  successor  of  St.  John  and  the 
patriarch  of  all  the  East.  Consequently,  we  would 

337 


THE  VATICAN 

be  quite  willing  to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 
But  why  are  you  uncompromising  on  the  doctrine  of 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost?  We  cannot  admit 
that  He  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  when 
He  proceeds  only  from  the  Father." 

"You  must,  however,  Monsignor,"  concluded  the 
prelate,  "admit  that  the  Council  of  Nicea,  which  in 
order  to  settle  the  matter,  added  to  the  Credo  the 
word  filioque,  represented  the  Universal  Church, — 
both  the  Greek  and  the  Latin.  Now,  how  do  you 
and  I  know  what  really  happens  in  the  Holy  Trinity? 
Have  we  ever  been  allowed  to  contemplate  it?  No, 
of  course  not.  We  believe,  therefore,  simply  what 
the  Universal  Church  teaches  us." 

This  unscientific  argument  surprised  the  good 
bishop,  who  went  his  way  in  a  very  pensive  mood. 
This  conversation  brings  out  very  clearly  the  recipro- 
cal sentiments  of  Rome  for  the  Orthodox  Greek 
church  of  today,  and  of  that  church  for  Rome.  The 
Vatican  is  far  removed  in  this  respect  from  the  hos- 
tility which  divides,  for  instance,  Mussulmans  and 
Christians. 

Much  the  same  thing  is  true  of  the  Dutch  Jansenist 
bishops.  It  is  generally  known  that  the  errors  of 
Jansen,  Bishop  of  Ypres,  concerning  grace,  free-will 
and  predestination,  as  contained  in  his  posthumous 
work  entitled  "Augustinus,"  published  in  1640,  were 
condemned  by  Innocent  X,  in  1653,  by  Alexander 
VII,  in  1656,  and  later,  by  the  Bull  Unigenitus  of 
Clement  XI,  in  1713.  After  a  brilliant  existence  in 
France,  owing  to  the  talents  and  intrigues  of  Port 

338 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

Royal,  where  were  such  men  as  Lancelot,  Nicole, 
Arnauld,  and  Pascal,  it  soon  died  out  and  left  no 
trace  behind  except  an  exaggerated  austerity  in 
Christian  life  and  a  pronounced  indifference  for  the 
sacraments ;  and  today,  even  these  ideas  have  quite  dis- 
appeared. But  in  Holland  a  certain  body  was  given 
to  Jansenism  by  the  defection  of  four  bishops  and 
some  of  their  priests,  who  set  up  an  independent 
church,  which  still  lives,  thanks  largely  to  the  wealth 
of  its  members.  When  one  of  the  bishops  dies,  the 
surviving  ones  choose  and  consecrate  his  successor, 
inform  the  Vatican  of  their  action,  and  receive  in  reply 
a  major  excommunication.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
that  the  bishop  is  validly,  though  illegally,  conse- 
crated, and  the  priests  whom  he  ordains,  though  con- 
demned by  Rome,  are  also  real  priests.  The  Jan- 
senists  are  not  a  very  numerous  sect, — some  20,000  at 
most.  It  is  seldom  that  one  of  them  returns  to  the 
true  Church.  Their  bishops  have  these  titles :  Arch- 
bishop of  Utrecht,  Bishop  of  Haarlem  and  Bishop 
of  Deventer.  They  do  not  call  themselves  Jansen- 
ists,  but  the  Ancient  Episcopal  Church  for  Catho- 
lics. 

Turning  next  to  Protestantism,  we  find  this  heresy 
divided  into  a  large  number  of  sects,  Lutherans,  Cal- 
vinists,  Anglicans,  Presbyterians,  Quakers,  et  cetera. 
Some  of  these  sects  are  almost  Catholics,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  Puseyities  in  England.  While  Rome 
sternly  condemns  all  the  dogmatic  errors  of  Protes- 
tantism, it  favors  with  all  its  heart  their  return  to  the 
unity  of  the  faith,  and  we  have  seen  in  another  part 

339 


THE  VATICAN 

of  this  book  that  in  some  Protestant  countries,  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States  and  England,  the  Catholic 
episcopacy  is  on  the  best  of  terms  with  Protestants, 
the  result  being  that  many  prejudices  are  removed 
and  numerous  conversions  made,  which  is  a  great  con- 
solation to  the  true  Church.  The  number  of  Catho- 
lics who,  on  the  contrary,  become  Protestants,  is  very 
small,  even  in  Germany,  where  there  is  a  very  strong 
effort  made  in  that  direction.  There  exists  at  Rome 
a  house  given  up  especially  to  the  neophites,  the 
Protestants  who  wish  to  return  to  the  religion  of  their 
fathers.  Another  house  of  this  kind  is  devoted  to  the 
instruction  of  other  dissidents, — to  Jews,  Mussul- 
mans, et  cetera.  Each  year,  on  the  morning  of  Holy 
Saturdajr,  in  the  Lateran  Church  of  St.  John  the  Bap- 
tist, occurs  a  solemn  baptism  of  converted  Jews  and 
Mussulmans,  performed  by  His  Eminence  the  Cardi- 
nal Vicar. 

Judaism  was  the  vestibule  of  Christianity.  The 
moral  prescriptions  of  the  Mosaic  law  and  the  dogmas 
of  the  Old  Testament, — the  existence  and  the  unity  of 
God,  divine  Providence,  the  future  life,  et  cetera,  are 
elemental  truths,  confirmed  by  the  divine  word  of 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  The  only  fault  the  Saviour 
found  with  the  Jews  of  his  time  was  their  having 
mixed  up  the  divine  precepts  with  human  traditions, 
to  which  they  clung  more  tenaciously  than  to  the  law 
itself.  (St.  Matthew,  15:3.)  The  Apostles  and  the 
first  disciples  of  Christ,  they  who  converted  the  world, 
were  Jews,  and  Our  Lord,  Jesus  Christ  Himself, 
deigned  to  descend  on  earth  in  the  midst  of  this  peo- 

340 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

pie.  The  Vatican  feels  sure  that  the  day  will  come 
when  these  erring  Jews  will  recognize  their  errors  and 
will  return  to  the  faith,  in  accordance  with  the  words 
of  the  Divine  Master,  "And  there  shall  be  one  fold 
and  one  shepherd."  (St.  John,  10:16.) 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Church  of  Rome  has 
never  persecuted  the  Jews,  but,  on  the  contrary,  has 
even  protected  them.  In  the  Eternal  City,  they  re- 
sided quietly  in  the  Ghetto,  and  when  a  Jew,  by  his 
business  capacity  had  amassed  a  fortune  and  was  con- 
verted, the  Pope  was  quite  ready  to  give  him  a  noble 
title,  often  making  him  a  prince,  when,  aided  by  a 
brilliant  marriage,  he  became  an  integral  part  of  the 
Roman  nobility.  Such  is  the  origin  of  several  great 
Roman  families.  It  is  true  that  in  Spain,  where  the 
Inquisition  was  established  by  the  kings,  Jews  were 
ruthlessly  persecuted,  and  those  who,  converted 
through  force  and  terror,  returned  to  their  faith,  were 
punished  most  cruelly.  But  the  Vatican  was  always 
opposed  to  these  fiendish  practices,  and  grateful  Jews 
have  sometimes  addressed  to  the  Popes  messages  of 
thanks  for  the  protection  accorded  to  them  by  the 
head  of  the  Church.  It  should  be  added,  however, 
that  when  the  J,ews  succeed  in  getting  the  upper  hand 
in  the  government  of  a  country,  they  readily  forget 
what  they  owe  to  Rome  and  are  only  too  prone  to 
persecute  the  Catholic  Church.  The  old  hatred  of 
Golgotha  seems  to  be  reawakened  in  them.  They 
use  their  ill-gotten  gains  in  a  way  unworthy  of  them 
and  of  the  nations  where  they  rule.  A  curious  fact 
has  just  been  brought  out  by  the  masterly  hand  of 


THE  VATICAN 

Monsignor  Beniqui,  in  his  studies  of  Imperial  Rome, 
that  the  Jews  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era 
treated  Christians  in  this  same  fashion,  and  persecuted 
them  without  mercy.  By  means  of  their  money,  they 
dominated  the  public  men,  corrupted  the  habits  of  the 
people,  and  used  both  to  destroy  the  Christians. 
Hence  the  bloody  persecutions  which  stained  Roman 
history  and  horrified  the  world.  But  there  are  many 
highly  cultured  Jews  today  who  do  not  permit  them- 
selves to  be  swept  off  their  feet  by  the  prejudices  of 
their  race,  and  who  see  very  clearly,  on  the  contrary, 
the  perils  of  such  a  course  and  the  terrible  and  inevi- 
table reaction  which  the  future  has  in  store  for  them. 
Only  a  few  years  ago,  the  Chief  Rabbi  of  London, 
who  died  soon  after,  published  a  political  testament  in 
which  he  adjured  his  co-religionists  not  to  consider  as 
the  only  aim  in  life  the  feverish  acquisition  of  riches, 
but  to  return  to  their  grand  ancestral  virtues,  to  culti- 
vate the  sciences  and  the  arts  and  everything  that 
pertains  to  the  human  mind;  and,  as  they  live  dis- 
persed over  the  world,  to  strive  to  gain  esteem  and 
consideration  by  the  dignity  of  their  lives  and  the 
spirit  of  wisdom  and  justice  shown  in  their  thoughts 
and  actions. 

The  Mussulman  has  always  been  much  more  hostile 
to  Christianity  than  the  Jew.  There  lies  between 
Islam  and  us  the  bloody  memory  of  the  historic  bat- 
tles of  the  Crusades  and  the  brilliantly  repelled  in- 
vasions of  the  Moors  in  Spain  and  the  Turks  in  the 
center  of  Europe.  This  hatred  of  the  Christian  name 
by  the  Mussulman  is  also  kept  up  by  the  cruel  f  anati- 

342 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

cism  of  his  beliefs  and  the  superstitious  ignorance  in 
which  he  lives.  But  a  transformation  of  Mussulman 
habits  and  ways  of  thinking  is  now  in  progress  which 
may  bring  about  an  unexpected  change  in  the  ideas 
of  the  followers  of  Mahomet.  The  scientific  knowl- 
edge and  material  advance  of  the  Western  and  Chris- 
tian peoples  are  more  and  more  attracting  their 
attention.  They  are  trying  to  imitate  them  even  in 
political  institutions.  The  recent  triumph  of  the 
Young  Turks  at  Constantinople,  and  the  constitu- 
tional liberals  in  Persia  renders  Islamism  less  fero- 
cious, more  accessible  to  Christian  civilization  and 
consequently  more  tolerant. 

Conversions  to  Christianity  are  very  rare  among 
Mussulmans  and  when  they  do  occur,  generally  occa- 
sion some  after-disappointment  to  the  converters. 
An  example  or  two  of  this  may  be  given.  Thus, 
when  some  twenty  years  ago  there  was  a  terrible 
famine  in  the  southern  part  of  Algeria,  Cardinal 
Lavigerie  took  under  his  protection  a  large  number 
of  native  orphans,  whom  he  had  brought  up  by  monks 
and  nuns  under  the  influences  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. This  magnanimous  conduct  so  struck  the  heart 
and  imagination  of  the  natives  that  they  surnamed  the 
Cardinal  "Father  of  Bread."  Cardinal  Lavigerie's 
idea  was  to  form,  later,  with  these  children,  once 
grown  up,  a  strong  Christian  center  by  marrying 
them  with  one  another.  But  the  success  of  the  scheme 
did  not  correspond  to  the  effort,  and  only  a  village 
here  and  there  could  be  started  on  these  lines.  Most 
of  the  children  when  they  had  become  adults  went 
23  343 


THE  VATICAN 

back  to  Islamism  and  their  tents.  Mussulmans  who 
come  into  contact  with  Christians  fully  appreciate 
the  charity  and  knowledge  of  the  latter.  They  at- 
tend with  great  willingness  the  Catholic  schools  and 
universities,  like  that  at  Beirut,  for  instance,  and 
flock  to  the  Sisters'  dispensaries  in  Algeria.  But 
their  mental  state  does  not  change,  and  they  remain 
as  Mussulman  as  ever. 

If  few  Mussulmans  become  Christians,  still  fewer 
Christians  go  over  to  Islamism.  Proselytism  in  favor 
of  the  latter  faith  has  been  successful  only  in  the 
countries  of  the  Far  East.  A  goodly  number  of 
Mussulmans  are  found  in  India,  China  and  Japan; 
they  are  also  gaining  ground  in  Central  Africa,  not- 
withstanding the  efforts  of  the  Christian  missionaries. 
The  polygamous  negroes  and  their  indulgence  in 
slavery  bring  them  nearer  to  a  religion  which,  far 
from  condemning  these  habits,  gets  on  very  well  there- 
with and  even  approves  them. 

Islamism  recognizes  a  single  God,  personal  and 
all-powerful.  But  the  other  oriental  religions,  Bud- 
dhism, Hindooism,  the  philosophic  religion  of  Con- 
fucius, et  cetera,  have  a  less  precise  idea  of  the  Divin- 
ity and  in  this  respect  are  further  separated  from  us. 
Until  recent  times,  the  immense  regions  where  these 
religions  are  professed  were  so  closed  to  Western 
civilization,  that  is,  Christianity,  that  missionaries 
could  hardly  do  more  than  penetrate  into  them  and 
acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them;  even  this  was 
done  at  the  peril  of  their  lives.  How  many  martyrs 
have  paid  with  their  blood  the  very  slow  progress  of 

344 


THE  CATHOLIC  FAITH 

Christianity  in  China  and  Japan!  But  today,  these 
nations  are  throwing  open  their  doors  to  European 
ideas  and  are  so  rapidly  equaling  us  in  certain  parts 
of  our  civilization  that  we  behold  the  change  with  utter 
astonishment.  It  becomes  more  and  more  evident 
that  henceforth  Christianity  will  enjoy  greater  liberty 
and  will  spread  more  rapidly  in  the  Far  East,  which, 
it  should  be  remembered,  was  formerly  a  very  flourish- 
ing Christian  land,  especially  Japan,  until  the  new 
ideas  were  nearly  drowned  in  the  blood  of  the  martyrs. 
In  this  direction,  therefore,  the  future  of  Christianity 
is  very  bright. 

Purely  pagan  and  barbarous  countries  are  becom- 
ing less  and  less  numerous  in  the  world  of  today. 
The  Catholic  Church  feels  for  them  the  sentiments 
expressed  by  Christ  in  so  touching  a  manner,  when 
He  said  of  the  people  eager  to  hear  Him:  "I  have 
compassion  on  the  multitudes."  (St.  Matthew, 
15:32.)  The  Church  sends  its  missionaries  to  in- 
struct them,  to  civilize  them,  to  organize  them,  and 
to  lead  them  to  intellectual  as  well  as  supernatural 
life.  In  this  hard  ministry  of  charity,  the  Church 
finds  great  consolation,  mingled,  alas!  with  disap- 
pointments, surprises  and  sometimes  bloody  perse- 
cutions. But  the  Church  is  never  disheartened,  and 
continues  to  advance  among  these  barbarians,  blessed 
and  aided  by  God.  The  Annals  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith,  complete  sets  of  which  are  found  at  the 
Vatican,  as  well  as  many  manuscript  reports  which 
are  found  in  the  archives  of  the  Vatican  and  have 
never  been  made  public,  give  many  touching  accounts 


THE  VATICAN 

of  these  brave  struggles  and  these  slow  but  iure  ad- 
vances. 

This  second  part  of  this  work  has  shown  the  govern- 
mental action  of  the  Church  throughout  the  world, 
the  political  and  dogmatic  difficulties  which  it  has  had 
to  surmount  in  the  course  of  recent  years  among  all 
peoples,  and  its  relation  with  the  adherents  of  other 
religions  and  with  the  pagan  world.  Its  more  inti- 
mate action  in  the  rule  of  souls  remains  to  be  exam- 
ined, and  this  will  form  the  third  part  of  the  volume. 


PART  III 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

The  Church  and  Modern  Science — Catholic  Men  of  Science — 
The  Catholic  Educational  Organizations  Stationed  in  Rome; 
Academies,  Universities,  Seminaries  and  Colleges  Belonging 
to  the  Different  Nations — The  Catholic  Universities,  Sem- 
inaries, Primary  and  Secondary  Schools  in  the  World  at 
Large — The  Question  of  Neutral  Schools. 

THE  Church  has  received  from  her  Divine  Founder 
the  mission  and  hence,  the  right,  to  teach:  Euntes 
docete  omnes  gentes,  "Go  ye  therefore,  and  teach  all 
nations."  Her  special  teaching  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
Gospel  which  she  must  make  known  to  the  world,  ex- 
plain clearly  and  defend.  But  to  be  able  to  enlighten 
the  public  mind,  to  hold  discussion  with  infidels,  to 
triumph  over  the  unceasing  attacks  of  which  she  is 
the  object  on  the  part  of  her  enemies,  to  meet  these 
foes  in  every  field,  whether  it  be  philosophy,  history, 
the  physical  or  natural  sciences,  morality,  sociology, 
or  public  law,  it  is  necessary  that  Catholic  apologists 
be  thoroughly  grounded  in  all  branches  of  human 
wisdom.  Hence  it  is  that  the  clergy  especially  should 
cultivate  science  and  learning;  for  labia  sacerdotis 
custodient  sdentiam,  "the  priest's  lips  shall  be  the 
guardian  of  knowledge." 

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THE  VATICAN 

The  Catholic  Church  has  been  true  to  its  mission  in 
this  respect ;  and  even  in  those  times  which  are  called, 
with  considerable  exaggeration,  the  ages  of  ignorance, 
the  Church  was  the  intellectual  light  of  the  world, 
saving  from  destruction  and  oblivion  in  her  monas- 
teries the  literary  treasures  of  Roman  and  Greek 
antiquity  and  acting  as  the  patient  teacher  of  the 
barbaric  nations  who  had  spread  destruction  every- 
where. 

Catholicism  of  today  cannot  be  accused  of  favoring 
ignorance  and  hindering  scientific  extension  and 
progress.  History  proves  the  contrary.  How  many 
universities,  seminaries,  colleges  and  schools  have  been 
founded  by  the  Church!  How  many  are  the  truly 
Christian  men  of  science  whose  names  shine  among 
those  of  the  creators  of  every  branch  of  knowledge, 
and  not  a  few  of  whom  are  found  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Catholic  clergy.  In  the  United  States,  Father  John 
Augustine  Zahm,  of  the  Holy  Cross  College,  Wash- 
ington, District  of  Columbia,  has  recently  published 
a  volume  entitled  "Catholic  Science  and  Catholic 
Scientists,"  which  has  been  translated  from  English 
into  Spanish,  Italian  and  French,  and  which  shows 
what  magnificent  work  Catholics  have  done  in  the 
intellectual  field. 

But  the  old  accusation  is  now  often  presented  under 
another  form.  It  is  stated  that  a  man  who  believes 
in  the  Catholic  faith  cannot  become  a  really  eminent 
man  of  science ;  that  his  mind  is  not  free  to  allow  him 
to  seek  after  the  real  truth;  that  he  is  fettered  by 
dogma.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  show  the  falsity 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

of  this  assertion.  Any  theory  which  is  in  contradic- 
tion with  facts  cannot  be  true.  Such  is  the  case  with 
this  one. 

The  astronomers  Leverrier  and  Father  Secchi,  a 
Jesuit;  the  Abbe  Haiiy,  the  Abbe  Moigno,  Ampere, 
Lavoisier,  Chevreul,  J.  B.  Dumas,  Antoine  Cesar 
Becquerel,  the  Abbe  Spallanzani,  de  Lapparent, 
Branly  and  many  others  are  counted  among  the  first 
men  of  science  in  the  world,  and  yet  they  were  all 
fervent  Catholics.  Several  of  them  even  made  most 
emphatic  and  public  declarations  on  the  subject. 
This  is  what  Cauchy,  1789-1857,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  modern  mathematicians,  who  continued  the  work 
of  Laplace,  to  whom  we  owe  the  solution  of  some  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  of  transcendental  analysis, 
says  in  his  book  on  the  religious  orders : 

"I  am  a  Christian,  that  is  to  say,  I  believe  in  the  Divinity 
of  Jesus  Christ,  with  Tycho  Brahe,  Copernicus,  Descartes, 
Newton,  Leibnitz,  Pascal,  Grimaldi,  Euler,  Guldin,  Bosco- 
wich  and  Gerdil ;  with  all  the  great  astronomers,  all  the  great 
physicists  and  all  the  great  geometricians  of  past  ages.  I 
am  even  a  Catholic,  as  were  most  of  them ;  and  if  I  were  asked 
for  my  reasons,  I  would  be  perfectly  ready  to  state  them.  It 
would  be  seen  that  my  convictions  are  the  result,  not  of 
prejudice,  imbibed  at  birth,  but  of  a  profound  analysis. 
Then  it  would  be  found  how  truths,  more  incontestable  in  my 
opinion  than  the  square  of  the  hypotenuse  or  the  theorem  of 
MacLaurin  are  engraved  forever  in  my  mind  and  heart.  I 
am  a  sincere  Catholic,  as  were  Corneille,  Racine,  La  Bruyere, 
Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Tendon,  as  were  and  still  are  a  great 
number  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  our  tim«s ;  those 

851 


THE  VATICAN 

who  most  eminently  honored  science,  philosophy,  and  litera- 
ture, who  are  the  most  brilliant  minds  of  our  academies. 
I  share  the  deep  convictions  manifested  in  the  words,  deeds 
and  writings  of  so  many  great  men  of  learning,  such  as 
Ruffin,  Haiiy,  Laennec,  Ampere,  Pelletier,  de  Freycinet,  and 
Corioli;  and  if  I  do  not  name  those  who  are  still  alive,  it  is 
because  I  do  not  wish  to  give  a  shock  to  their  modesty.  But 
I  can  say  that  I  am  happy  to  find  the  nobility  and  generosity 
of  faith  in  my  illustrious  friends,  in  the  creator  of  crystal- 
lography, in  the  discoverer  of  quinine  and  the  inventor  of 
the  stethoscope,  in  the  celebrated  navigator  who  sailed  in  the 
Uranie,  and  in  the  immortal  author  of  dynamic  electricity." 

The  well-known  Dr.  Brownson,  1803-1876,  one  of 
the  ablest  philosophers  of  these  times,  speaking  on 
this  subject  in  his  interesting  book,  "The  Convert," 
wrote : 

"I  have  never,  in  a  single  instance,  found  a  single  article, 
proposition,  or  definition  of  faith  which  embarrassed  me  as  a 
logician,  or  which  I  would,  so  far  as  my  own  reason  was  con- 
cerned, have  changed,  or  modified,  or  in  any  respect  altered 
from  what  I  found  it,  even  if  I  had  been  free  to  do  so.  I 
have  never  found  my  reason  struggling  against  the  teachings 
of  the  Church,  or  felt  it  restrained,  or  myself  reduced  to  a 
state  of  mental  slavery.  I  have,  as  a  Catholic,  felt  and  en- 
joyed a  mental  freedom  which  I  never  conceived  possible, 
while  I  was  a  non-Catholic." 

The  reason  why  the  Catholic  scientist  is  perfectly 
free  arises  from  the  absolute  certainty  of  dogmatic 
truths  which  can  never  be  in  opposition  to  the  legiti- 
mate conclusions  of  science.  If  there  be  apparent 
contradiction,  it  results  from  the  fact  that  Christian 

352 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

doctrine  has  been  badly  interpreted  or  that  conclusions 
are  imputed  to  science  which  do  not  belong  to  it.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that  the  chief  objects  of  the  faith 
deal  with  mysteries — the  Trinity  and  Incarnation,  for 
instance,  which  are  outside  the  domain  of  science, 
whether  philosophic  or  natural.  This  was  very  clearly 
pointed  out  by  Pasteur  and  Claude  Bernard. 

"Experimental  science,"  says  Pasteur,  "is  essen- 
tially positivistic  in  the  sense  that,  in  its  conception, 
it  never  introduces  a  consideration  of  the  essence  of 
things,  of  the  origin  of  the  world  and  its  destinies." 
And  Claude  Bernard  says :  "First  causes  do  not  be- 
long to  the  domain  of  science.  The  science  of  living 
bodies  and  of  raw  material  are  beyond  our  reach." 

At  the  Congress  of  German  Naturalists,  held  in 
Munich  in  1877,  Virchow,  certainly  not  a  friend  of 
the  Church,  pronounced  these  remarkable  words: 

"All  efforts  to  transform  our  problems  into  doctrinal 
affirmations,  to  make  our  hypotheses  the  basis  of  conceptions 
of  the  human  spirit  and  particularly  any  effort  of  that  kind 
directed  against  the  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church,  you 
may  be  sure,  gentlemen,  will  fatally  end  in  wreck;  and  the 
disaster  will,  at  the  same  time,  subject  the  general  solution 
of  science  to  the  most  serious  danger." 

To  say  that  the  Church  ever  persecuted  science  or 
men  of  science  is  pure  calumny.  Here  are  the 
words  on  this  point  of  the  last  Vatican  Council,  found 
in  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  Dogmatic  Constitution : 

"The  Church,  far  from  opposing  the  progress  of  human 
arts  and  sciences,  helps  and  encourages  them  in  various  ways. 


THE  VATICAN 

She  does  not  ignore  the  advantages  which  humanity  derives 
therefrom.  She  does  more  than  this ;  she  recognizes  the  fact 
that,  if  the  arts  and  sciences,  coming  as  they  do  from  God, 
Author  of  them  all,  are  properly  utilized,,  they  must,  with 
the  assistance  of  His  grace,  lead  to  God." 

The  greatest  universities  of  Europe  are,  in  their 
origin,  Catholic,  and  most  of  them  were  founded  long 
before  the  Reformation  and  the  Renaissance  to  which 
the  progress  of  thought  is  so  often  wrongly  attributed. 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  Aberdeen  and  St.  Andrew, 
Upsala  and  Copenhagen,  Paris,  Toulouse  and  Mont- 
pellier,  Leipzig,  Heidelberg,  Wiirtzburg,  Cracow, 
Prague,  Vienna,  Bologna,  Naples,  Pisa,  Turin, 
Rome,  Salamanca,  Seville,  Valladolid,  Coimbra  and 
Lou  vain  were,  from  the  Middle  Ages,  the  famous 
centers  of  knowledge,  where  students  gathered  in 
thousands.  These  were  occasions  when  one  single 
university  could  count  more  than  ten  thousand  stu- 
dents on  its  benches,  a  figure  seldom  attained  by  the 
largest  schools  of  today.  Every  branch  of  science 
and  art  was  taught  at  these  institutions.  There  we 
find  in  an  incipient  state  many  of  the  discoveries 
which  later,  when  developed,  awakened  admiration 
throughout  an  astonished  world;  there,  finally,  to 
quote  Carlyle,  "all  the  inventions  and  social  institu- 
tions, by -the  help  of  which,  even  today,  our  life  is 
truly  that  of  civilized  beings,  had  their  origin  and  the 
principles  of  their  development." 

Far  from  persecuting  men  of  science,  Rome  en- 
couraged them  and  sustained  them  by  grants  of 
money  as  a  reward  for  their  work  and  to  help  them 

S54 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

to  cany  on  their  studies  still  further.  This  is  abun- 
dantly proved  by  the  Vatican  archives  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  It  is  another  amusing  fact,  by  the 
way,  that  Galileo  was  subventioned  by  Urban  VIII, 
his  "abominable  persecutor,"  according  to  historians 
hostile  to  the  Church.  It  is  to  be  noted,  moreover, 
that  if  Galileo  suffered  for  his  opinions,  the  cause  must 
be  sought  in  his  own  temerity  rather  than  in  the  in- 
tolerance of  his  examiners.  We  may  conclude,  there- 
fore, that  the  great  men  of  science  in  whom  humanity 
glories,  were  not  impious.  "The  day  is  at  hand," 
wrote  Kepler,  "when  every  man  will  read  truth  in  the 
book  of  nature,  as  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  when 
every  man  will  rejoice  in  the  harmony  of  the  two 
revelations." 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  whose  modesty  was  only  equaled 
by  the  greatness  of  his  discoveries,  was  so  impressed 
by  the  sense  of  his  smallness  and  utter  nothingness 
when  brought  face  to  face  with  the  marvelous  works 
of  God,  that  he  said,  shortly  before  his  death:  "It 
seems  to  me  that  I  am  only  a  child  playing  by  the 
sea  shore,  and  amusing  myself  by  picking  up  from 
time  to  time  a  pebble  or  a  shell  which  is  prettier  than 
its  fellows,  while  the  great  ocean  of  truth  spreads 
immense  and  unknown  before  my  eyes." 

"The  true  chemist,"  said  the  illustrious  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  "sees  God  in  the  multiple  forms  of 
the  outer  world";  and  Linnaeus  exclaimed,  in  a  burst 
of  enthusiasm,  "I  followed  the  footsteps  of  God  in 
the  works  of  His  creation;  and  in  them  all,  even  in 
the  smallest,  in  those  which  approach  to  nothingness, 

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THE  VATICAN 

what  power,  what  wisdom,  what  ineffable  perfection 
there  is !" 

"Astronomy,"  says  J.  Moedler,  "comes  from  heaven ; 
and  it  is  worthy  of  such  an  origin.  It  claims  to  pene- 
trate into  the  knowledge  of  God,  when  it  unfolds 
the  truths  which  reveal  to  us  all  the  greatness  of  His 
deeds ;  when  it  develops  the  principles  which  bear  the 
name  of  laws  of  nature.  It  is  right,  not  that  nature 
has  given  laws  unto  herself,  but  because  it  is  God's 
finger  which  has  written  them  in  creation." 

We  must  beware  of  those  half -wise  people  better 
known  for  their  irreligious  professions  than  for  their 
scientific  discoveries.  These  modern  makers  of  theo- 
ries about  which  so  much  is  said,  these  numerous  fur- 
bishers  of  scientific  hypotheses,  to  whom  the  ignorant 
multitude  is  too  apt  to  attribute  all  the  progress  made 
in  the  physical  and  natural  sciences,  are  most  often 
only  parasites,  living  on  the  works  and  discoveries  of 
others,  who  having  appropriated  the  observations 
made  by  thousands  of  religious  minds,  whose  penetrat- 
ing glance  has  ever  perceived  the  God  of  nature  in  His 
works,  leisurely  weave  with  these  observations  the  tis- 
sue of  their  impious  and  fantastic  theories. 

The  famous  Catholic  chemist,  Jean-Baptiste 
Dumas,  1880-1884,  long  secretary  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences,  very  pertinently  remarked  in 
this  matter  that  those  who  simply  develop  the  dis- 
coveries of  others,  and  never  make  any  for  themselves, 
greatly  exaggerate  their  own  importance,  because 
they  never  encounter  the  mysteries  of  nature  which 
check  true  scientists.  Hence  their  impiety  and  their 

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CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

infatuation.  The  attitude  of  those  who  make  discov- 
eries themselves  is  quite  different.  They  know  by 
experience  how  limited  is  their  field,  and  at  each  step 
find  themselves  arrested  by  the  incomprehensible. 
Hence  their  religion  and  their  modesty.  Faith  in 
mysteries  is  easy  and  natural  to  them. 

In  a  word,  Rome  is  still  faithful  to  his  traditions. 
Teaching  in  every  degree  is  still  widely  organized  by 
the  Church,  and  draws  to  our  schools,  seminaries,  in- 
stitutes and  universities  many  thousands  of  students 
of  all  nationalities.  Let  us  consider  this  organization 
as  it  exists  in  the  Eternal  City,  and  in  the  Catholic 
universities  and  similar  institutions  throughout  the 
world. 

The  last  institute  founded  in  Rome  by  His  Holi- 
ness, Pius  X,  by  Apostolic  Brief,  Vinea  electa,  on 
May  7,  1909,  is  the  Biblical  Institute.  To  the  at- 
tacks directed  each  day  against  our  Holy  Books  in 
the  name  of  science,  it  was  necessary  to  oppose  a 
school  of  learning  for  the  scientific  defense  of  the 
Bible.  This  is  the  purpose  of  the  institute,  which 
prepares  students,  in  private  classes,  for  academic  de- 
grees, and  offers  public  lectures  on  biblical  questions. 

Some  years  ago  the  Dominican  Fathers  founded  a 
biblical  school  similar  to  the  institute,  which  has  ren- 
dered good  service.  Then  there  are  the  Scientific  and 
Literary  Institute  of  the  Pontifical  Roman  Seminary, 
a  model  of  diocesan  seminaries,  where  young  clerics 
are  formed  in  science  and  in  ecclesiastical  duties,  and 
whose  prefect  of  studies  is  a  bishop,  Monsignor  Sera- 
fini,  titular  Bishop  of  Lampsacus,  and  the  Institute 

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of  Higher  Literary  Studies,  founded  by  Leo  XIII, 
embracing  in  its  curriculum  the  thorough  study  of 
Italian,  Latin  and  Greek  literatures. 

The  Pontifical  Academies  are:  the  Theological 
Academy,  with  Cardinal  Franc  as  protector ;  the  Pius 
Union  of  Ecclesiastics  of  St.  Paul,  the  Apostle,  whose 
protector  is  Cardinal  Respighi,  Vicar  to  His  Holiness, 
and  at  whose  reunions  moral  and  conscientious  diffi- 
culties are  discussed  under  the  direction  of  eminent 
professors;  the  Liturgical  Academy,  whose  protector 
is  also  Cardinal  Respighi,  at  the  ten  annual  sittings 
of  which  liturgical  difficulties  are  discussed  and 
solved;  the  Academy  of  the  Catholic  Religion,  whose 
president  is  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Rampolla;  the 
Roman  Academy  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  of  which 
Cardinal  Rampolla  is  also  president;  the  Romana  Ac- 
cademia  del  Nuovi  Lined,  whose  protector  is  His 
Eminence  Cardinal  Luigi  Oreglia  di  Santo  Stepano; 
the  Archeological  Academy,  of  which  the  learned 
commendatore  J.  B.  de  Rossi  was  the  oracle  for  a 
long  time,  but  whose  present  protector  is  Cardinal 
Luigi  Oreglia  di  Santo  Stepano;  the  Academy  of 
Arcadians,  which  is  a  literary  gathering  whose  sit- 
tings are  extremely  interesting  and  whose  foundation 
was  contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. The  president,  Monsignor  Agostino  Bartolini, 
is  well  known  in  Italy  for  his  poetical  and  other  lit- 
erary works  which  have  become  classic;  the  Tiberine 
Academy,  whose  president  is  Count  Antonelli;  the 
Academy  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  the  pro- 
tector of  which  is  Cardinal  Agliardi;  and  the  Acad- 

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CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

emy  of  the  Pantheon  Virtuosi,  whose  regent  is  Pro- 
fessor Guido  Guidi,  a  painter  of  talent. 

The  seminaries  and  colleges  conducted  by  the 
secular  clergy  are  very  numerous  in  Rome.  Here 
belongs  the  academy  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics,  whose 
protector  is  Cardinal  Ferrata,  and  whose  president 
is  Monsignor  Zongli.  Here  the  future  diplomatists 
of  the  Holy  See  are  instructed  in  ecclesiastical  di- 
plomacy, diplomatic  style,  political  economy,  inter- 
national law,  and  the  French,  English  and  German 
languages.  Ecclesiastics  admitted  to  this  academy 
must  have  completed  their  theological  and  philo- 
sophical studies.  They  live  together  in  the  palace 
belonging  to  the  academy,  the  Piazza  del  la  Minerva. 
In  this  same  category  belong  also  the  Roman  Pontifi- 
cal Seminary  under  the  control  of  Monsignor  Spol- 
verini;  the  Pius  Pontifical  Seminary,  whose  rector  is 
Monsignor  Serafini,  and  which  is  a  part  of  a  higher 
school  for  the  best  pupils  of  the  diocesan  seminaries 
of  Italy;  the  Pontifical  Vatican  Seminary,  dependent 
on  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter;  the  Leonine  Pontifical 
Seminary,  founded  for  two  hundred  young  ecclesi- 
astics, studying  to  become  directors  and  professors 
in  seminaries. 

Institutions  intended  for  foreign  Catholic  students 
and  more  or  less  under  the  direct  charge  of  the  differ- 
ent nations  are  a  feature  of  Catholic  Rome.  In  this 
connection  should  be  mentioned  the  French  Pontifical 
Seminary,  conducted  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  rector  is  Brother  Le  Floch.  Here  are 
received  ecclesiastical  pupils  from  all  the  dioceses  in 
24  359 


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France,  who,  after  completing  their  studies  and  ob- 
taining their  degrees  in  Rome,  return  home,  well 
trained  in  mind  and  firmly  attached  to  Rome,  the 
"center  of  the  faith  and  of  the  best  Christian  tradi- 
tions," as  one  of  the  graduates  once  truthfully  re- 
marked. 

Here  belong  also  the  Seminary  of  the  Blessed 
Apostles  Peter  and  Paul;  the  Pontifical  Seminary  of 
Saints  Ambrose  and  Charles,  whose  rector  is  Mon- 
signor  Caroli;  the  American  College  of  the  United 
States,  whose  rector  is  Bishop  Thomas  F.  Kennedy, 
a  native  of  Pennsylvania  and  titular  bishop  of  Adrian- 
opolis,  which  institution,  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
in  Rome,  is  frequented  by  young  Americans  from  all 
parts  of  the  Union;  the  English  College  and  Vener- 
able Bede's  College,  the  rector  of  these  two  colleges 
being  Monsignor  Giles,  titular  Bishop  of  Philadel- 
phia; the  Armenian  College;  two  Belgian  Colleges, 
one  conducted  by  Monsignor  T'Carlo  De  Serclaes  and 
the  other  by  Monsignor  Vaes ;  the  Bohemian  College, 
founded  by  His  Holiness  Leo  XIII;  the  Canadian 
College,  for  the  future  priests  of  the  Dominion;  and 
the  Capranica  College,  which  bears  the  title  of  Almo 
Collegia,  and  is  the  oldest  of  these  institutions,  having 
been  founded  in  1458  by  Cardinal  Domenico  Capran- 
ica. Several  of  the  chief  dignitaries  of  the  Roman 
Church  were  educated  in  this  college.  The  list  also 
includes  the  Scotch  College,  for  the  education  of  the 
future  priests  of  North  Britain;  the  Pontifical- Span- 
ish College,  the  Germanic  College,  the  red  cassocks  of 
whose  students  are  one  of  the  picturesque  features  of 

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CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

the  streets  of  Rome ;  the  Greek  College ;  the  Irish  Col- 
lege ;  the  College  of  Mary  Immaculate ;  the  Maronite 
College;  the  Philippine  College,  founded  at  Perugia 
by  Leo  XIII  for  the  Marches,  Umbria  and  Romagna, 
and  transferred  to  Rome;  the  Pio-Latino- Americano 
College;  the  Polish  College;  the  Portuguese  College, 
founded  in  1900,  with  Monsignor  Sinibaldi  as  rector; 
the  Ruthenian  College,  founded  by  His  Holiness  Leo 
XIII ;  and  the  two  Teutonic  Colleges. 

In  the  Urban  College  of  the  Propaganda  are  edu- 
cated future  missionaries,  and  it  especially  welcomes 
students  from  missionary  lands.  It  has  the  privilege 
of  granting  the  canonical  degrees  of  bachelor,  licenti- 
ate and  doctor. 

Many  religious  orders  also  have  colleges  in  Rome, 
conducted  by  their  orders.  Here  may  be  mentioned 
the  Roman  College  or  Gregorian  University,  man- 
aged by  the  Jesuits,  one  of  the  most  famous  colleges 
in  the  Catholic  world  and  the  most  frequented  by 
pupils  and  auditors  of  all  those  in  the  Eternal  City; 
the  Seraphic  College  of  St.  Francis,  conducted  by 
the  Conventual  Friars  Minor ;  and  the  Pontifical  Col- 
lege of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  entrusted  to  the  Domini- 
cans. 

The  Pontifical  and  International  College  of  the 
Angelic  Doctor,  for  Dominicans,  takes  the  place  of 
the  former  Minerva  College.  The  subjects  taught 
by  a  professorial  staff  composed  of  Dominicans  of  all 
nationalities,  form  a  most  complete  curriculum,  which 
includes  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas,  canon  law,  ethics, 
natural  law,  sociology  and  the  history  of  philosophy, 

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archeology  and  geology,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  dogma, 
theological  formulae,  the  history  of  the  Church,  logic, 
criticism  and  ontology,  physical  science  and  astron- 
omy, cosmology,  psychology  and  natural  theology, 
Christian  art,  pastoral  theology,  the  institutions  of 
ecclesiastical  public  law  and  their  evolution,  the  his- 
tory of  Christian  literature,  patrology  (study  of  the 
writings  of  the  early  Fathers) ,  a  general  introduction 
to  Holy  Scripture,  the  special  introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  exegesis  of  the  New,  the  institu- 
tions of  private  ecclesiastical  law,  the  institutions  of 
the  philosophy  of  law,  practical  moral  theology,  bi- 
ology, higher  mathematics,  the  methods  and  sources 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  Latin  paleography,  diplo- 
macy, Syriac  and  Arabic. 

The  other  colleges  conducted  by  regulars  are:  St. 
Albert's  College,  the  Carmelites  of  the  Ancient  Ob- 
servance; St.  Anselm's  College,  a  beautiful  modern 
building  erected  on  Mount  Aventine,  where  all  the 
students  are  Benedictines;  St.  Anthony's  College,  an 
international  institution  for  Friars  Minor  who  are 
going  forth  to  do  missionary  work;  the  College  of 
St.  Alexis  Falconieri  for  the  Servites  who  also  de- 
vote their  lives  to  the  mission  field;  St.  Bonaventura 
College  of  Conventual  Minors;  St.  Isidore  College 
for  Irish  Friars  Minor;  St.  Monica  College,  for 
Augustinians  of  all  nationalities;  the  Seraphic  Col- 
lege of  the  Friars  Minor  Capuchins,  international; 
the  Discalced  Carmelite  College,  also  international; 
the  College  of  the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
from  Issoudun,  France;  and  the  Norbertino  College. 

362 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

If  to  this  long  list  be  added  that  of  the  Pontifical 
primary  schools,  found  in  all  quarters  of  Rome,  for 
the  education  of  the  people ;  the  numerous  schools  for 
secondary  instruction  and  the  technical  institutes, 
where  are  taught  electricity,  mechanics,  et  cetera,  all 
under  the  direction  of  the  clergy,  it  will  be  difficult 
to  accuse  the  present  Papal  Rome  of  being  a  center 
of  ignorance.  Nor  is  her  educational  activity  limited 
to  the  purlieu  of  St.  Peter's.  It  is  spread  throughout 
the  Catholic  world,  by  means  of  the  universities  placed 
under  the  high  direction  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  Studies  which  sits  at  Rome. 

The  question  of  Catholic  universities  arose  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  as  a  principle,  on  the  very  day 
when  the  state  universities  ceased  to  be  denomina- 
tional ;  or,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  from  the  moment  when, 
not  satisfied  with  becoming  secularized,  they  ceased 
to  respect  the  established  religion  and  revealed  doc- 
trine. For  long  years  the  Christian  spirit  continued 
to  rule  in  the  universities,  and  the  prudent  conduct 
of  the  governments  kept  the  revolutionary  efforts  of 
the  masters  within  bounds,  and  maintained  a  certain 
modus  vivendi  which  the  great  mass  of  Catholics  had 
to  be  satisfied  with,  in  default  of  anything  better. 
The  ideal  of  the  Church  is,  of  course,  a  state  university 
with  its  teaching  based  on  Catholic  dogma,  wherever 
that  dogma  is  touched  upon.  But  when  their  con- 
science is  at  length  molested,  then  the  faithful,  in  spite 
of  the  undeniable  disadvantage  resulting  from  seg- 
regation and  the  exclusion  of  outsiders,  claim  the  right 
to  have  special  universities  for  their  own  followers. 

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This  question  arises  in  every  country,  sooner  or  later, 
in  accordance  with  the  strength  of  the  nation's 
tendency  towards  laicization. 

Some  countries,  Germany  and  Austria,  for  in- 
stance, have  tried  to  satisfy  Catholics  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  Catholic  theological  schools  within  their 
universities.  But  this  measure  is  absolutely  insuffi- 
cient, for  the  Catholic  theological  faculty  is  thus  found 
side  by  side  in  the  same  university  with  the  Rationalist 
and  anti- Christian  faculties,  with  the  result  that  the 
effects  of  its  teaching  are  constantly  checked  by  the 
teaching  of  the  other  faculties,  by  whom  every  effort  is 
made  to  uproot  the  very  principles  on  which  its  teach- 
ing is  based.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  only  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  the  difficulty  is  a  free  and  separate 
Catholic  University.  These  facts  are  well  presented 
by  Monsignor  Baudrillart,  rector  of  the  Catholic  In- 
stitute of  Paris,  in  his  work  entitled,  "Les  Universites 
Catholiques  de  France  et  de  1'Etranger." 

The  most  important  of  the  Catholic  universities  is 
that  of  Louvain,  founded  in  1425.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  it  became  the  "Belgian  Athens."  In  1797 
it  was  suppressed  by  a 'Republican  decree,  but  rees- 
tablished in  1834,  with  thirteen  professors  and  eighty- 
six  students,  among  whom  was  the  future  Cardinal 
Deschamps.  At  present  the  university  has  125  pro- 
fessors and  2,300  students.  It  owes  its  resurrection 
to  the  Belgian  bishops  who,  less  than  four  years  after 
the  proclamation  of  the  national  independence  of 
Belgium,  in  1830,  reopened  its  doors  with  the  object 
of  shaping,  as  did  the  old  university,  "men  of  learn- 

364 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

ing  and  good  Christians."  Since  then,  Louvain  Uni- 
versity has  become  an  admissible  center  of  intellectual 
life,  with  its  five  colleges,  its  three  seminaries,  its 
schools  of  all  kinds,  its  thirty  periodicals,  and  its  seven- 
teen Conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  If  Catho- 
lics have  been  at  the  head  of  the  Belgian  government 
for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  this  fact  is  largely  due 
to  the  influence  exercised  by  Louvain  University. 
Eight  cabinet  ministers,  among  them  being  Prime 
Minister  Schollaert,  one  hundred  deputies,  governors 
of  provinces  and  high  functionaries  of  all  sorts, 
proudly  hail  Louvain  as  their  Alma  Mater. 

"In  the  religious  hierarchy,"  wrote  the  rector,  Monsignor 
Hebbelynck,  "the  University  of  Louvain  has  presided  over 
the  intellectual  training  of  fourteen  bishops  or  archbishops 
now  living,  among  whom  are  three  Belgian  bishops  and  our 
cardinal  primate,  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Mercier,  chosen 
from  our  academic  corps  to  occupy  the  archiepiscopal  see 
of  Malines.  Among  the  former  students  of  this  university 
are  legions  of  learned  priests,  who  by  the  extent  of  their 
knowledge  and  the  thoroughness  of  their  training,  exercise  a 
salutary  influence  over  the  moral  and  religious  life  of  their 
fellow-countrymen.  Brought  up  in  a  school  which  shrinks 
before  no  problem  of  modern  criticism,  initiated  into  the  state 
of  mind  and  the  writings  of  those  who  do  not  share  our  con- 
victions regarding  Christianity,  they  also  know,  according  to 
the  counsels  of  the  great  Bishop  of  Hippo,  St.  Augustine, 
how  to  reconcile  the  conflict  between  different  ideas  and  doc- 
trines, with  the  love  of  humanity,  and  by  their  influence  in 
the  ranks  of  the  clergy  to  ensure  the  proper  defense  of  the 
faith  without  feeding  the  flames  of  discord." 

The  number  of  doctors,  professors,  lawyers  and 

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distinguished  members  of  the  liberal  professions,  who 
were  trained  at  Louvain,  amounts  to  several  thou- 
sands. Its  engineers'  association  contains  more  than 
1,200  members.  The  honor  of  the  discovery  of  the 
coal  mines  of  Limburg  belongs  to  two  professors  of 
the  Louvain  Mining  College,  Guillaume  Lambert  and 
Andre  Dupont.  "We  thank  you,"  said  M.  Hubert, 
the  well-known  engineer,  addressing  Andre  Dupont, 
"for  having  set  this  black  diamond  in  the  crown  of 
pearls  which  embellishes  the  brow  of  our  Alma 
Mater." 

The  equipment  for  instruction  is  most  complete  at 
Louvain  University.  Besides  numerous  laboratories 
for  microscopy  and  cellular  biology,  human  and  com- 
parative embryology,  applied  electricity,  zoology, 
paleontology,  anatomy,  physiology,  bacteriology,  phy- 
siological chemistry,  are  well  established  courses  deal- 
ing with  notarial  law,  ecclesiastical  civil  law,  social 
law,  philosophy  according  to  the  method  of  St. 
Thomas,  contemporary  history,  philology,  modern 
Greek,  ancient  Germanic  languages,  comparative 
grammar,  the  Latin,  Greek  and  French  languages, 
the  Iranian  languages,  with  classes  in  Sanskrit, 
Hebrew,  Syrian  and  Arabic.  The  literary  and  de- 
bating societies  are  very  flourishing.  More  recently 
courses  have  been  organized  in  the  history  of  social 
theories  and  experimental  psychology  with  laboratory 
practice.  Students  flock  to  Louvain  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  to  follow  the  classes  of  the  Leo  XIII 
Institute  and  the  learned  men  who  have  been 
trained  there  now  occupy  important  chairs  in  many 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

countries.  The  works  published  by  the  Louvain 
professors  are  of  value  and  several  are  numbered 
among  the  classics.  The  bibliography  of  their  works 
alone  fills  more  than  five  volumes. 

Such  results  cannot  be  obtained  without  great  ex- 
penditure. The  annual  budget  of  the  university 
amounts  to  some  1,200,000  francs.  Belgian  Catho- 
lics, from  their  leaders,  the  bishops,  down  to  the 
humblest  soldier,  the  workmen  and  peasants,  show 
no  trace  of  hesitation  or  dissension  in  their  ranks. 
They  want  their  own  special  university,  and  they  wish 
it  to  be  on  a  large  scale ;  so  they  do  what  is  necessary 
to  insure  its  greatness  both  morally  and  materially, 
supplying  both  students  and  equipment  the  necessary 
funds.  Cardinal  Mercier  stated  the  situation  clearly 
when  he  wrote:  "The  University  of  Louvain  is  the 
collective  work  of  the  Belgian  Catholic  zeal;  the  splen- 
did product  of  thousands  of  gifts,  subsidies  and  parish 
collections,  in  which  the  halfpennies  of  the  poor  mix 
with  the  silver  or  gold  coins  of  richer  worshippers." 
Some  well-known  families  have  endowed  a  school  or 
an  institute,  as  for  instance  the  Duke  of  Arenberg, 
who  not  long  ago  gave  the  university  funds  with 
which  to  open  a  chemical  laboratory. 

The  celebration  of  the  seventy-fifth  anniversary  of 
the  restoration  of  the  university  at  Louvain,  which 
took  place  from  May  9  to  11,  1909,  was  brilliant  and 
showed  the  increasing  strength  of  the  institution. 
Eight  of  the  present  Belgian  ministers,  and  among 
them  the  Prime  Minister  already  mentioned,  Mr. 
Schollaert,  were  present.  Three  other  ministers  had 

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been  professors  at  the  university.  All  joined  heartily 
in  the  celebration,  which  was  attended  by  many  dig- 
nitaries from  all  parts  of  the  academic  world. 

The  Catholic  universities  founded  in  France,  at 
Paris,  Lille,  Lyons,  Angers,  Toulouse,  shortly  after 
the  passage  of  the  law  of  July  12,  1875,  establishing 
the  liberty  of  higher  education,  have  not  played  such 
an  important  role,  nor  exercised  such  wide  influence 
as  the  Louvain  University,  even  taken  altogether. 
The  number  of  students  has  not  exceeded  700  in  Paris, 
600  at  Lille  and  Lyons,  250  at  Angers,  100  at  Tou- 
louse, a  total  of  about  2,200,  a  figure  slightly  inferior 
to  the  maximum  of  2,300  attained  at  Louvain.  Of 
course,  these  figures  refer  to  registered  students  and 
not  to  attendance  at  university  lectures.  Even  ad- 
mitting that  these  2,200  students  constitute  an  elite, 
it  is  insufficient  for  a  nation  of  38  millions  of  inhabit- 
ants, especially  if  we  remember  that  in  Paris  alone 
the  state  university  has  some  17,000  students. 

Monsignor  Baudrillart  in  his  interesting  work  on 
Catholic  universities  in  France  also  gives  these  reasons 
for  this  somewhat  discouraging  abstention  of  such  a 
large  portion  of  the  Catholic  youth  of  France: 

First,  the  unceasing  war  on  our  Catholic  universi- 
ties. The  French  Catholic  universities  were  insti- 
tuted at  the  moment  when  those  who  were  opposed 
to  their  reestablishment  attained  political  power. 
Therefore,  very  restricted  freedom  was  granted  to 
these  institutions.  They  are  not  allowed  any  inde- 
pendence in  the  drawing  up  of  the  programmes  of 
studies  leading  to  degrees,  nor  the  right  to  confer 

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CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

these  degrees.  Not  only  did  the  law  passed  in  1880 
do  away  with  mixed  examining  boards  and  deprive  the 
institutions  of  the  title  of  university,  but  any  altera- 
tion in  the  curriculum  was  made  a  pretext  for  restrict- 
ing still  further  the  field  of  action  of  Catholic  universir 
ties.  If,  in  the  case  of  examinations,  we  cannot  com- 
plain of  undue  partiality  on  the  part  of  the  boards,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  when  one  of  our  graduates 
wishes  to  enter  upon  a  career,  the  mere  fact  of  his  hav- 
ing been  graduated  at  a  Catholic  university  is  un- 
doubtedly looked  upon  with  disfavor.  "There  must 
be  no  hesitation,"  says  Monsignor  Baudrillart,  "in 
stating  that  French  Catholics  have  not  sufficiently 
realized  their  duty  in  this  very  important  matter. 
They  lacked  courage  and  the  spirit  of  faith.  If  they 
had  sufficient  will-power,  they  would  gain  the  ma- 
jority in  numbers,  as  surely  in  the  universities  as  in 
secondary  schools.  'And  to  think/  said  the  Holy 
Father,  when  I  handed  him  the  statistics  of  our  uni- 
versities compared  with  those  of  the  state,  'that  among 
the  thousands  of  young  men  who  follow  the  state 
courses,  there  are  many  who  are  Catholics  and  the 
sons  of  Catholics.  It  is  truly  an  aberration !' ' 

The  students'  associations  have  been  very  slow  in 
forming.  Nor  are  they  sufficiently  strong  and  active, 
except  in  Northern  France.  They  lack  that  spirit 
of  initiative  and  organization  which  is  seen  among  the 
numerous  societies  of  Louvain  University.  Finally, 
political  differences  must  be  numbered  among  the 
causes  which  paralyze  the  development  of  our  Catho- 
lic universities  in  France,  and  prevent  them  from  ob- 

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taining  all  the  social  influence  which  they  deserve. 
These  political  divisions  have  exercised  their  disinte- 
grating action  there  as  elsewhere,  by  reason  of  the 
distrust  which  they  spread  among  the  students  them- 
selves. 

Are  we  to  infer  from  what  has  just  been  stated 
that  the  work  of  the  Catholic  universities  of  France 
has  not  been  of  value  and  that  they  do  not  hold  an 
honorable  rank  among  the  teaching  bodies  in  the 
world?  A  mere  glance  at  the  success  obtained  by 
the  faculties  of  medicine,  law,  letters,  science  and  the- 
ology proves  the  contrary  beyond  question.  In  the 
first  place  and  in  a  general  way,  the  Catholic  uni- 
versity centers  have  done  excellent  work  in  protect- 
ing Christian  students  from  those  dangers  to  which 
their  faith  and  the  purity  of  their  lives  are  exposed 
during  the  university  course.  At  Paris,  and  in  other 
university  towns,  young  men,  separated  from  their 
families,  find  boarding-houses,  clubs,  Catholic  student 
associations  and  lecture  courses  which  aid  them  ma- 
terially in  their  work. 

Each  of  the  French  Catholic  universities  has  its 
special  feature.  Thus,  Paris  has  a  peculiar  prestige 
owing  to  its  large  corps  of  professors,  lecturers,  in- 
structors, its  numerous  and  varied  public  lectures,  its 
classes  for  young  girls,  and  the  brilliancy  due  to  the 
teaching  of  such  men  as  Monsignor  d'Hulst,  the  Abbe 
de  Broglie,  M.  Lamarzelle,  Monsignor  Duchesne,  M. 
George  Lemoine,  M.  de  Lapparent,  M.  Branly,  et 
cetera. 

Lille  had  been  remarkable  from  the  beginning  for 

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CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

its  complete  material  organization.  To  the  five  tra- 
ditional faculties,  it  added,  as  early  as  1885,  a  note- 
worthy normal  school  of  higher  industrial  studies. 
Then  there  is  the  medical  school  which  is  frequented 
by  students  from  all  parts  of  France  and  to  which 
have  been  added  hospitals,  clinics  and  dispensaries. 
The  university  numbers  more  than  one  hundred  teach- 
ers, some  of  whom  are  widely  known  for  their  excel- 
lent work,  and  the  students  are  more  united  and  bet- 
ter organized  than  anywhere  else  in  France.  In 
addition  to  its  own  lectures,  the  university  sends  out 
its  professors  to  give  lectures  in  all  the  large  towns 
of  that  part  of  the  country. 

The  Catholic  university  has  acted  chiefly  as  a 
normal  school  for  the  departments  of  the  southeast 
of  France  and  has  devoted  itself  to  that  task  with  the 
most  indefatigible  zeal.  Its  faculty  of  sciences  has 
organized,  along  with  the  courses  for  superior  educa- 
tion, properly  so-called,  the  teaching  of  applied  sci- 
ences, with  a  view  to  preparing  its  students  for  the 
industrial  and  commercial  careers  so  numerous  and 
so  much  sought  after  in  the  Departments  of  the 
Rhone,  the  Ardeche,  and  the  Loire.  The  same 
faculty  has  contributed  to  the  foundation  and  pros- 
perity of  the  Lyons  La  Salle  High  School  for  the 
technical  training  of  young  workingmen.  The  uni- 
versity has  fifty-three  teachers  in  its  four  faculties, 
who,  besides  this  special  university  work,  conduct  free 
evening  classes,  classes  for  girls  and  lecture  courses 
on  Fridays. 

There  is  no  state  university  at  Angers;  so  here  the 

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Catholic  university  has  an  open  field.  It  deserves 
attention  on  account  of  its  forty  professors,  its  four 
faculties  and  its  agricultural  school,  a  creation  of  the 
principal  land  owners  of  the  region,  which  is  doing 
good  service  in  that  farming  district  of  France.  The 
Toulouse  Catholic  University  has  a  dozen  literary  and 
scientific  chairs,  and  has  become  one  of  our  first 
schools  for  sacred  science,  which  is  its  distinguishing 
feature. 

The  French  bishops  first  turned  their  attention  to 
the  creation  of  faculties  of  law  and  of  medicine.  A 
medical  school  was  especially  desired.  Although  the 
enormous  material  difficulties  and  expense  have  de- 
layed work  in  this  direction,  Lille  has  been  able  to  ac- 
complish great  results.  Her  medical  school  has  sent 
into  the  departments  of  the  Nord,  the  Pas-de-Calais 
and  several  of  our  provinces,  nearly  a  thousand  doc- 
tors and  a  hundred  and  sixty  pharmacists.  "From 
all  quarters,"  wrote  Monsignor  Baunard  some  time 
ago,  "we  are  asked  for  doctors,  who  are  offered  good 
positions,  and  received  with  open  arms.  It  would  be 
the  salvation  of  many  country  places  if  we  could 
supply  the  demand.  But  we  cannot  find  sufficient 
men  for  all  these  posts,  and  we  usually  have  to  reply : 
'Begin  by  sending  us  students  of  whom  we  can  make 
doctors  who  will  return  to  you  full  of  science  and 
faith.' " 

Side  by  side  with  scientific  studies,  the  charitable 
and  social  work,  which  is  part  of  the  education  of  a 
Christian  doctor,  has  been  splendidly  developed  at 
Lille.  In  ten  years  more  than  500,000  patients  have 

372 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

been  treated  at  the  Charity  Hospital.  The  two  ma- 
ternity hospitals  since  the  day  of  their  opening  have 
received  more  than  16,000  mothers.  Since  1877,  the 
Asile  des  Cinq  Plaies  has  opened  its  doors  to  1,100 
cripples,  and  the  Hospital  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua 
has  received  4,443  children  since  1890.  The  Maison 
Ste.-Camille,  founded  in  1903,  has  treated  1,333  cases 
of  mental  diseases,  and  the  Maison  St.  Raphael 
has  had  5,595  patients  since  1899.  There  have  been 
more  than  700,000  free  consultations  in  the  dis- 
pensaries. This  is  not  a  bad  showing,  and  we  may 
add  that  the  expense  of  this  Catholic  medical  work  at 
Lille,  for  technical  instruction  only,  from  the  founda- 
tion until  1908,  amounted  to  6,200,000  francs.  God 
alone  knows  the  amount  given  by  M.  Camille  Feron- 
Vrau,  director  of  the  Croix  newspaper  at  Paris. 

Nothing  done  in  medicine  in  the  other  Catholic  uni- 
versities compares  with  what  has  been  accomplished 
at  Lille.  Angers  has  been  able  to  open  only  a  first- 
year  preparatory  class ;  Lyons  has  St.  Joseph's  Hos- 
pital, with  a  first  rate  medical  staff;  and  Paris,  with 
its  hospital  dedicated  also  to  St.  J/oseph,  can  point 
to  preventive  or  preparatory  institutions  such  as  the 
Laennec  lectures,  and  the  Fonsgrive  lectures,  or  the 
courses  in  supplementary  medical  instruction,  recently 
founded  as  the  result  of  an  arrangement  between  the 
Catholic  Institute  and  the  Luxembourg  Students' 
Club. 

The  Catholic  law  schools  of  France  have  sent  forth 
into  the  land  a  group  of  business  men,  advocates  and 
lawyers  who  have  remained  faithful  to  the  Church  and 

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are  to  be  found  at  the  head  of  all  Catholic  enter- 
prises. A  goodly  number  of  mayors,  general  coun- 
cilors, and  deputies  are  former  students  of  the  Catho- 
lic law  schools  of  Lille  and  Angers.  The  Lille  law 
school  numbered  149  students  a  short  time  ago.  An- 
gers has  graduated  540  licentiates  of  law  and  95  doc- 
tors of  law;  Paris,  1,268  licentiates,  211  doctors  and 
one  agrege,  the  highest  degree  given  in  France  and 
acquired  in  a  most  stringent  competitive  examina- 
tion. 

Having  founded  faculties  of  medicine  and  law,  the 
bishops  next  turned  their  attention  to  the  creation 
of  faculties  of  letters  and  sciences.  It  took  some  two 
or  three  years  to  set  them  on  foot.  The  object  aimed 
at  was  to  supply  young  Catholics  with  the  means  of 
competing  and  increasing,  by  superior  studies  and  by 
obtaining  the  licentiate  which  may  be  compared  to 
the  master's  degree  in  England  and  America,  those 
secondary  studies  which  they  had  acquired  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical colleges,  and  also  to  prepare  good  pro- 
fessors for  the  non-state  high  schools. 

The  law  required  that  even  the  smallest  municipal 
college  should  have  only  licentiates  as  teachers.  It 
was  absolutely  essential  that  all  who  aspired  to  the 
title  of  professor  in  non-state  secondary  schools  should 
possess  this  degree.  This  difficult  task  was  accom- 
plished, thanks  to  our  Catholic  institutes.  Long  be- 
fore this,  the  liJcole  des  Carmes  at  Paris,  the  Char- 
treaux'  School  at  Lyons,  and,  since  1871,  the  ]Scole  de 
St-Aubin  at  Angers,  had  sought  to  accomplish  this  ob- 
ject, and  the  following  figures  will  show  what  has 

374 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

been  done  in  this  direction.  From  its  opening  until 
November,  1908,  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris  has 
produced  1,060  licendes  es  lettres,  35  doctors  and  36 
agreges;  that  of  Angers,  330  licendes  and  30  doctors ; 
that  of  Lyons,  more  than  300  licendes;  and  that  of 
Toulouse,  241  licendes,  10  doctors  and  2  agreges.  In 
the  sciences,  the  figures  for  Paris  are  177  licendes t 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  changes  made  in  1897, 
424  certificates  (three  of  which  equal  a  license),  10 
doctorates  and  1  aggregation;  and  for  Angers  86  li- 
censes f  169  certificates  and  10  doctorates.  Since  the 
day  when,  by  an  iniquitous  measure,  the  aggregation 
was  refused  to  the  students  prepared  at  our  institu- 
tion, many  have  obtained  one  or  other  of  the  diplomas 
of  higher  studies,  which  form  the  intermediary  pas- 
sage between  license  and  agregation.  That  is  to  say 
that  during  the  last  34  years  the  Catholic  universities, 
having  graduated  from  three  to  four  thousand  licen- 
des es  lettres  or  es  sdences,  have  infused  new  blood 
into  our  colleges.  A  sign  of  the  transformation  ac- 
complished is  seen  in  the  value  of  the  works  written 
by  the  clergy. 

Theological  faculties,  including  chairs  of  philoso- 
phy, of  canon  law,  of  Church  history,  of  exegesis  and 
Christian  apologetics,  were  the  last  to  be  founded. 
They  were  not  felt  to  be  so  urgently  needed,  owing  to 
the  existence  of  large  diocesan  seminaries  where  the 
teaching  was,  usually,  very  carefully  carried  on.  It 
was  from  Rome  that  came,  quite  rightly,  the  per- 
sistent demand  for  the  establishment  of  theological 
faculties.  They  were,  therefore,  founded.  Their 
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students  are  usually  young  ecclesiastics,  sent  up  by 
their  bishops.  They  live  together  in  a  seminary,  and 
later  form  quite  an  intellectual  elite  in  the  ranks  of 
the  clergy. 

At  Paris,  the  canonical  faculties  have,  in  thirty 
years,  turned  out  1,319  auditors  (bachelors),  205  lec- 
tors (licencies),  34  masters  (theological  doctors) ; 
584  auditors,  154  lectors  and  14  masters  of  canon 
law ;  864  auditors,  41  lectors  and  9  masters  of  philoso- 
phy; and  have  awarded  9  diplomas  for  Semitic 
languages.  The  entire  number  of  degrees  awarded 
is  therefore  3,238.  At  Angers,  the  same  faculties 
have  created  611  bachelors,  113  ticendls,  and  27  doc- 
tors. 

At  the  Catholic  Universities  of  Lyons,  Poitiers  and 
Toulouse,  the  figures  for  university  degrees  of  all 
kinds  are  proportionately  the  same  as  those  given 
above.  In  addition  to  the  special  classes  for  the 
preparation  of  the  students  for  the  examinations,  the 
professors  in  the  various  branches  of  theology  give 
public  lectures,  to  which  flock  numerous  lay-people 
of  both  sexes.  These  number  from  four  to  five  hun- 
dred in  Paris.  The  object  of  these  lectures  is  the 
scientific  defense  of  religion. 

And  thus,  by  the  very  importance  of  the  matter 
dealt  with,  and  by  the  diffusion  of  their  teaching,  the 
theological  faculties,  or  rather  let  us  say,  the  faculties 
of  sacred  science,  so  little  desired  at  the  beginning, 
and  which  were  founded  almost  with  reluctance,  have 
really  become  most  important  of  all.  We  are  able 
to  state  that  Cardinal  Guibert,  Archbishop  of  Paris, 

376 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

shortly  before  his  death,  solemnly  asserted  this  fact 
to  Monsignor  d'Hulst. 

The  fame  of  the  French  Catholic  universities  has 
been  greatly  enhanced  abroad,  by  the  personal  works 
of  their  professors.  At  the  annual  commencements, 
a  list  is  published  of  the  books  written  by  these  teach- 
ers. They  number  several  hundreds  each  year.  At 
the  World's  Fair  of  1900,  the  Paris  Catholic  Uni- 
versity faculty  filled  a  whole  book-case,  and  at  the 
Angers  exhibition  in  1895,  the  Catholic  University  of 
the  West,  exhibited  two  hundred  volumes  from  the 
pens  of  her  professors  and  former  students.  It  may 
be  stated  that  Rene  Bazin,  of  the  French  Academy, 
is  one  of  the  delights  and  glories  of  that  university, 
while  Lille  is  justly  proud  of  the  historical  works  of 
Monsignor  Hautecoeur,  the  literary  productions  of 
M.  de  Margerie,  and  the  writings  of  Monsignor 
Baunard,  all  of  the  Catholic  university  of  that  town. 
Lyons  can  point  to  the  extensive  and  important  his- 
torical works  of  Canon  Ulysse  Chevalier,  and  Paris 
to  those  of  Monsignor  Duchesne,  and  to  the  philo- 
sophical studies  of  Monsignor  Elie  Blanc,  whose 
monthly,  La  Pensee  Contemporcdne,  carefully  ex- 
amines all  the  theories  which  agitate  the  intellectual 
world.  Canon  Tisseront,  the  Abbe  Jacquier,  Mon- 
signor du  Sparre,  Monsignor  Delmont,  Monsignor 
Devaux,  and  other  able  thinkers  also  hail  from  Lyons 
and  have  written  valuable  books,  while  Monsignor 
Sauve  and  Monsignor  Pasquier,  authors  of  note,  were 
once  brilliant  teachers  at  Angers.  Toulouse  boasts 
of  the  literary  works  of  M.  Couture,  and  the  remark- 

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able  attainments  in  chemistry  of  the  Abbe  Sander- 
ens,  while  the  theological  output  of  the  Abbes  Por- 
talier  and  Saltet  also  shed  luster  on  that  university. 
Toulouse  once  numbered  among  its  professors  the 
Abbe  Gayraud  and  the  Reverend  Father  Colonnier, 
who  founded  the  Revue  Thomiste.  Even  our  ene- 
mies have  been  struck  by  the  work  done  in  Catholic 
universities  in  France. 

"Religious  phenomena,"  wrote  Ferdinand  Lot  a  few  years 
ago,  "have  such  a  preponderating  importance  in  the  past  and 
present  life  of  society,  that  we  cannot  understand  why  the 
monopoly  of  such  studies  should  be  left  to  the  clergy,  at  any 
rate  in  the  provinces.  It  is  not  by  means  of  jokes  and  news- 
paper articles  that  we  shall  be  able  to  influence  young  minds. 
We  need  men  of  science  and  specialists  to  fight  against  the 
new  clerical  generation  which  is  putting  men  in  possession  of 
a  totally  superior  degree  of  education.  The  government  and 
the  Parliament  do  not  appear  to  realize  the  necessity  of  re- 
cruiting a  staff  of  teachers  capable  of  fighting  on  their  own 
ground,  Catholic  clergy  of  today." 

Catholic  universities  flourish  as  well  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  world  and  are  centers  for  the  study  of 
sacred  and  profane  science.  At  Dublin,  after  various 
efforts  and  attempts  to  establish  an  institution  sepa- 
rated from  Protestant  influences,  the  Catholic  uni- 
versity has  at  length  been  founded,  thanks  to  an 
impartial  spirit  of  justice  and  to  state  assistance. 

At  Quebec  and  Montreal,  in  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada, is  established  the  celebrated  Laval  University 
bearing  the  name  of  its  founder,  Monsignor  Laval. 
The  rector  is  in  Quebec,  the  vice-rector  in  Montreal, 

378 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

and  each  has  four  faculties.  In  the  two  cities  are 
1,050  students,  of  whom  370  are  theological  students, 
160  law  students,  and  290  medical  students.  At 
Montreal  is  also  a  polytechnical  school  attended  by  a 
hundred  students.  The  Laval  and  Dublin  Universi- 
ties are  the  only  ones  in  the  immense  British  Empire 
which  are  controlled  by  Catholics. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Catholic  University  of 
America  is  situated  at  Washington,  in  the  District 
of  Columbia.  Its  establishment  was  discussed  as 
early  as  1866,  but  it  was  not  founded  until  1884,  after 
the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore.  In  1889, 
by  apostolic  letter,  date  March  seventh,  His  Holi- 
ness Pope  Leo  XIII  granted  the  faculty  the  right  to 
confer  the  degrees  of  doctor,  licentiate  and  bachelor. 
Within  a  dozen  years,  thanks  to  generous  gifts,  this 
young  institution  has  been  set  up  and  endowed  in 
such  manner  as  to  arouse  the  envy  of  all  Catholic  uni- 
versities and  of  even  the  greater  number  of  state  uni- 
versities of  old  Europe.  It  comprises  schools  of  the 
sacred  sciences,  philosophy,  law,  letters  and  science, 
each  of  which  includes  several  departments ;  and  since 
its  foundation  numerous  colleges  whose  advanced 
students  pursue  courses  in  the  university,  have  be- 
come affiliated  with  it.  The  statistics  for  a  recent  col- 
lege year  give  the  number  of  the  teaching  body  as 
32,  and  that  of  the  students  as  210. 

The  oldest  Catholic  literary  establishment  in  the 
United  States,  however,  is  Georgetown  University, 
which  is  also  in  Washington  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. It  was  founded  just  after  the  War  of  the 

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Revolution  by  the  Catholic  clergy  of  Maryland  and 
since  1805  has  been  under  the  direction  of  the  Society 
of  J,esus.  To  the  original  academy  have  been  added 
an  astronomical  observatory,  the  medical  school,  the 
law  school,  the  university  hospital,  the  dental  school, 
and  the  training  school  for  nurses.  It  is  the  most 
noted  of  the  Catholic  educational  centers  in  America, 
and  exerts  wide  influence  through  its  various  institu- 
tions and  its  distinguished  alumni,  who  number  nearly 
five  thousand.  As  a  university  it  is  finely  equipped 
and  according  to  the  statistics  of  the  year  1909  ac- 
commodated 749  undergraduate  students,  with  a 
teaching  body  numbering  142  professors,  lecturers 
and  assistants. 

A  third  university  of  note  in  the  United  States  and 
the  oldest  west  of  the  Mississippi  is  that  in  St.  Louis, 
Missouri.  This  was  founded  in  1818  as  an  academy, 
under  the  direction  of  the  secular  clergy,  by  the 
Right  Reverend  Louis  William  Du  Bourg,  Bishop 
of  Louisiana.  But  in  1829,  owing  to  the  growth  of 
the  school,  the  secular  clergy  were  obliged  to  seek  the 
aid  of  one  of  the  teaching  orders.  The  Jesuits  then 
undertook  its  management  and  by  1832  it  had  re- 
ceived its  charter  as  a  university. 

At  present  St.  Louis  University  comprises  the  col- 
lege, the  school  of  divinity,  the  school  of  philosophy, 
the  school  of  advanced  science,  the  department  of  seis- 
mology and  meteorology,  the  school  of  medicine,  the 
school  of  dentistry,  the  institute  of  law,  and  the  school 
of  commerce  and  finance.  Its  faculty  numbers  241 
and  its  student  body  1,287  (June,  1911). 

380 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

South  America  has  but  one  non-state  Catholic  uni- 
versity, that  of  Santiago,  Chili,  founded  fifteen  years 
ago  by  Monsignor  Casanova.  It  belongs  to  the  same 
category  as  the  St.  Louis  University,  that  is  to  say 
both  secondary  and  higher  courses  are  given.  There 
are  four  faculties:  theology,  law,  letters  and  sciences. 
As  in  France,  the  degrees  are  conferred  by  the  state, 
but  the  board  of  examiners,  which  is  not  composed  of 
professors  from  the  state  universities,  sits  at  the 
Catholic  university,  and  the  students  are  free  to  pre- 
sent themselves  for  examination  on  the  same  condi- 
tions as  their  comrades  of  the  state  schools. 

From  young  America,  let  us  now  pass  to  the  center 
of  ancient  civilization,  to  the  Syrophoenician  borders 
of  the  Mediterranean.  At  Beirut,  as  at  Georgetown 
and  St.  Louis,  we  find  the  Jesuits  directing  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  original  creations  of  their  apos- 
tolic zeal.  In  1881  Leo  XIII  consecrated  the  work 
already  accomplished  at  Beirut  by  the  canonical  erec- 
tion of  the  New  University  of  St.  Joseph,  and  by 
granting  it  the  right  to  confer  academic  degrees. 
Beirut  College  ordinarily  numbers  450  to  500  stu- 
dents, with  70  more  at  the  seminary,  who,  religiously, 
belong  to  various  rites :  Syrian,  Chaldean,  Greek,  Ar- 
menian, Coptic,  Maronite  and  Latin.  In  1907,  the 
college  numbered  among  its  alumni  21  bishops,  3  pa- 
triarchs and  230  priests.  The  French  Foreign  Office 
used  to  give  15,000  francs  for  scholarships  for  stu- 
dents chosen  by  the  French  consul  and  brought  up  in 
the  college.  This  subsidy  was  reduced  to  7,000  in 
1905,  and  finally  done  away  with  altogether  in  1906. 

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THE  VATICAN 

Gambetta  and  Jules  Ferry  were  better  inspired  and 
more  devoted  to  the  true  interests  of  France  when 
they  came  to  the  support  of  the  medical  school,  which 
was  added  in  1883,  and  the  faculty  of  philosophy  and 
theology.  Jules  Ferry,  then  Minister,  drew  up  the 
first  regulations  which  were  applied  in  the  school,  and 
recognized  it  formally  as  a  French  institution.  Four 
years  later  M.  Goblet,  then  Minister,  sent  a  delegate 
to  Beirut  to  preside  at  the  examinations  of  medical 
students;  and  on  October  6,  1888,  M.  Lockroy,  who 
had  become  Minister,  officially  approved  of  the  cur- 
riculum and  permitted  the  students  to  receive  the 
regular  diploma  of  doctor  of  medicine,  delivered  by 
his  office  and  signed  by  the  Minister  of  Public  In- 
struction; and,  at  the  same  time,  he  allowed  the  school 
to  assume  the  title  of  university.  In  1890,  the  Egyp- 
tian government  officially  recognized  the  Beirut  medi- 
cal degree,  and  in  1898  the  Ottoman  government  did 
the  same,  on  the  condition  that  delegates  from  the 
Imperial  University  of  Constantinople  should  act  as 
examiners. 

In  1908,  the  Beirut  Medical  School  celebrated  its 
twenty-fifth  anniversary,  when  the  public  learned  that 
during  this  quarter  of  a  century,  the  school  had  edu- 
cated 361  doctors  and  pharmacists,  now  dispersed 
throughout  the  whole  Ottoman  Empire.  At  present 
the  number  of  students  exceeds  230.  A  preparatory 
school  was  added  to  the  medical  school  in  1907. 

In  1902,  the  course  of  higher  education  in  the  East 
received  a  new  stimulus  by  the  creation  of  an  oriental 
department  at  the  university,  a  philological  school, 

382 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

where  the  study  of  the  Arabic  language  occupies  first 
rank.  Peculiar  facilities  in  this  direction  are  afforded 
by  the  very  situation  of  Beirut  in  a  country  where  the 
Arabic  tongue  is  used,  and  by  the  excellent  library 
of  the  university,  100,000  printed  volumes  and  5,000 
manuscripts,  which  are  exceedingly  useful  to  students 
who  intend  to  fit  themselves  for  the  teaching  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  Classes  have  also  been  formed  for 
the  teaching  of  Hebrew,  Syriac,  archeology,  epigra- 
phy, history  and  exegesis.  This  department  is  like 
its  younger  sister,  the  Practical  School  of  Biblical 
Study,  founded  in  1890,  at  Jerusalem,  by  the  Domin- 
icans, and  so  successfully  managed  by  the  learned 
Father  Lagrange.  We  may  add  that  the  oriental 
department  of  Beirut  admits  students  of  all  nation- 
alities and  all  religions,  if  they  have  the  necessary 
intellectual  and  moral  qualifications  required  of  all 
students  in  Catholic  universities. 

The  Fribourg  Catholic  University,  founded  in 
1819,  is  also  one  of  the  great  centers  of  higher  edu- 
cation which  the  Church  glories  in.  It  is  due  to  the 
initiative  and  intelligent  perseverance  of  State  Coun- 
cilor Pithon,  Director  of  Public  Instruction  in  the 
Canton  of  Fribourg,  assisted  by  his  friend,  the  well- 
known  sociologist,  Decurtins.  It  was  evident  that 
Fribourg,  situated  in  an  entirely  agricultural  region, 
having  a  population  of  about  130,000  inhabitants,  and 
overshadowed  by  the  three  neighboring  universities 
at  Berne,  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  could  not  hope  to 
find  a  sufficient  teaching  staff  or  student  body  if  it 
counted  on  Swiss  Catholics  alone.  So  M.  Pithon 

383 


THE  VATICAN 

conceived  the  happy  plan  of  bringing  together  an  in- 
ternational faculty.  Furthermore,  Fribourg  being 
on  the  very  limits  of  the  territories  where  French  and 
German  tongues  and  customs  meet,  he  felt  that  the 
new  university  could  be  made,  as  it  were,  the  fusing- 
pot  of  Latin  and  Germanic  civilizations.  He,  there- 
fore, formed  the  faculty  on  the  model  of  the  German 
universities,  but,  at  the  same  time,  gave  great  impor- 
tance to  the  French  element  in  the  teaching  staff. 
From  that  time,  Fribourg  University  may  be  con- 
sidered as  having  been  established.  It  could  live,  and 
enjoyed  peculiarities  and  merits  of  its  own,  which, 
however,  at  the  same  time,  gave  rise  to  certain  diffi- 
culties. Among  its  peculiarities,  at  least  among  our 
Catholic  universities,  is  the  fact  that  the  professors 
and  students  come  from  every  country  in  the  world. 

The  student  body  is  composed  of  Germans,  Eng- 
lishmen, Swiss,  Frenchmen,  Italians,  Spaniards, 
Poles,  and  Slavs.  Two  or  three  years  ago  the  student 
body  was  made  up  of  179  Swiss;  98  Germans;  88 
Poles  and  Lithuanians;  66  Frenchmen;  34  Bulga- 
rians; 25  Italians;  23  Austrians;  21  Americans;  9 
Dutchmen ;  4  Englishmen ;  2  Canadians ;  and  one  stu- 
dent from  each  of  the  following  countries:  Greece, 
Norway,  Ecuador,  Tunis,  and  Australia.  This  as- 
tonishing mixture  of  nationalities  offers  certain  ad- 
vantages; for  the  students  are  in  a  meeting  ground 
of  all  civilizations,  races,  tongues  and  ideas.  It  is 
good  also  for  the  professors,  and,  in  addition,  awakens 
a  spirit  of  emulation  that  would  be  unknown  under 
other  conditions.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  numerous 

384 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

difficulties  must  necessarily  crop  up,  owing  to  the 
competition  and  to  the  striving  for  influence  mani- 
fested, sometimes  very  strongly,  in  the  ranks  of  the 
professorial  staff.  But  up  to  the  present  time,  M. 
Pithon's  wisdom  and  tact  have  been  able  to  smooth 
away  all  these  difficulties. 

The  theological  school  at  Fribourg  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dominicans,  who  have  made  it  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  stable  centers  of  learning  in  Europe. 
There  are  also  schools  of  law,  letters,  philosophy  and 
science.  The  university's  greatest  need  is  a  medical 
school;  but  hospitals  and  clinics  already  exist  at  Fri- 
bourg. The  faculty  has  more  professors  than  the 
Catholic  University  in  Paris,  71  as  against  60,  though 
fewer  than  Louvain  University.  The  teaching  staff 
is  divided,  as  is  usual  in  Germany,  into  three  cate- 
gories: ordinary  professors,  extraordinary  professors 
and  privat-docents.  The  number  of  matriculated 
students  is  generally  about  560,  divided  among  the 
different  schools  as  follows:  theology,  203;  law,  127; 
letters,  108;  sciences,  131.  About  100  non-matricu- 
lated hearers  attend  the  lectures. 

In  the  shadow  of  the  university,  several  institutions 
have  sprung  up.  There  is  the  old  college  of  St. 
Michael,  one  of  the  best  in  Switzerland;  the  young 
college  or  villa  Saint-Jean,  for  the  French,  admirably 
managed  by  the  Marianists  to  whom  so  many  exiled 
families  have  remained  attached;  several  schools  for 
girls  preparing  for  degrees;  groups  of  religious  or- 
ders; dormitories  for  the  ecclesiastical  students;  and 
boarding  houses  for  lay  students.  In  a  word,  Fri- 

385 


THE  VATICAN 

bourg  has  become  a  university  town  in  every  sense  of 
the  word.  It  knows  the  joys  and  the  troubles  of  such 
cities.  The  good  townsfolk  are  sometimes  disturbed 
as  are  those  of  Louvain  on  similar  occasions.  But  all 
are  proud  of  the  ardent  youths  who,  along  with  their 
sometimes  startling  costumes  and  customs,  display 
strength,  honesty,  faith,  and  devotion  to  the  Church, 
and  who,  after  all,  are  perhaps  quite  justified  in  not 
presenting  all  these  fine  qualities  on  sad  faces,  as  if 
carrying  the  dead  to  their  last  resting  place. 

Within  the  space  of  twenty  years  the  professors  of 
Fribourg  University  have  produced  a  considerable 
quantity  of  good,  intellectual  work,  which  has  brought 
them  very  favorably  before  the  great  European  pub- 
lic, and  has  done  much  to  render  Fribourg  unques- 
tionably one  of  the  most  active  centers  of  Catholicism 
in  Europe.  We  may  say,  in  closing,  that  this  univer- 
sity takes  rank  along  with  that  of  Lille,  immediately 
after  Louvain  and  Paris. 

We  have  still  to  deal  with  the  efforts  made  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  towards  the  foundation  of  exclusively 
Catholic  universities.  The  Spanish  Constitution,  Ar- 
ticle 12,  recognizes  the  principle  of  educational  liberty 
in  every  degree.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  organic  law 
concerning  the  liberty  of  higher  education  has  been 
promulgated  as  yet.  Although  greater  respect  is 
shown  for  Christian  doctrine  in  Spanish  state  universi- 
ties than  in  those  of  any  other  country,  still  the  situ- 
ation causes  considerable  anxiety  among  the  wisest 
of  our  Spanish  brethren.  Various  plans  for  the  modi- 
fication of  this  condition  of  things  have  been  devised 

386 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

within  the  last  few  years,  but  unfortunately,  none  has 
succeeded  up  to  the  present  time.  However,  on  Oc- 
tober 31,  1909,  a  Catholic  university-academy  was 
opened  in  Madrid,  founded  by  the  Bishop  of  Madrid. 
A  council  of  directors,  composed  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  highest  society  in  Madrid,  heads  the  under- 
taking. The  president  is  the  Marquesa  de  Comillas ; 
the  vice-presidents,  the  Marques  de  Pidal  and  the 
Marques  de  Santillana ;  while  a  Jesuit  and  an  Augus- 
tinian  represent  the  religious  orders.  The  object  of 
the  institution  is  to  offer  to  young  men  who  come  in 
such  great  numbers  to  Madrid  for  study,  an  intellec- 
tual center  under  exclusively  Catholic  control.  There 
is  a  special  chair  for  higher  studies  in  religion  and 
one  for  philosophy.  The  other  courses,  thirteen  in 
number,  deal  with  the  social  and  political  sciences, 
while  there  are  three  seminaries,  one  for  social  sciences, 
one  for  political  sciences  and  the  third  for  general  cul- 
ture. This  effort  is  worthy  of  our  sympathy  and  may 
be  considered  as  the  embryo  of  a  future  Catholic  uni- 
versity in  Spain. 

With  the  exception  of  the  important  Roman  in- 
stitutions which  we  have  already  described,  and  a 
dozen  Pontifical  theological  schools  in  the  provinces, 
which  are,  in  fact,  only  examination  boards,  there  is  at 
present  no  non-state  university  in  Italy.  The  law  will 
not  permit  such  an  establishment.  But  the  matter  is 
under  discussion,  and  the  echoes  of  what  is  being  done 
at  Louvain  and  elsewhere,  and  in  congresses  of  Cath- 
olic students,  have  given  new  strength  to  the  move- 
ment. 

387 


THE  VATICAN 

In  the  Italian  state  universities,  as  in  those  in  Ger- 
many and  France,  the  reigning  spirit  is  usually 
rationalistic,  positivistic  and  materialistic.  If  they 
contain  some  chairs  devoted  to  the  history  of  religions 
or  the  history  of  Christianity,  these  are  usually  occu- 
pied by  atheists.  Priests  who  have  forsaken  the 
Church  are  welcomed  with  great  warmth  by  these  in- 
stitutions. Quite  recently,  for  instance,  there  was 
some  talk  of  conferring  on  the  ex-Abbate  Minocchi 
a  chair  of  Biblical  instruction  at  the  University  of 
Pisa.  Of  course,  we  must  not  paint  the  picture  in 
over-dark  colors.  The  Italian  state  universities  count 
among  their  professors,  and  often,  indeed,  among  the 
most  distinguished  of  these,  men  who  are  fervent  be- 
lievers. For  example,  at  Pisa  is  Professor  Toniolo, 
who  has  colleagues  in  the  faculty  who  share  his  faith 
and  have  sent  forth  pupils  to  teach  with  great  success. 
At  a  recent  Catholic  university  congress,  sat  side  by 
side  with  Professor  Toniolo,  on  the  opening  day,  a 
young  and  brilliant  member  of  the  faculty  of  law  at 
Genoa,  Professor  Boggiano,  who  is  an  outspoken 
Catholic.  But  taken  as  a  whole,  higher  education  in 
Italy  bears  the  hall  mark  of  irreligion.  Those  stu- 
dents who  would  escape  that  spirit  have  but  one  re- 
source, to  seek  their  education  in  the  foreign  Catholic 
universities.  Some  of  the  bishops  of  Northern  Italy 
send  every  year  a  half  dozen  young  ecclesiastics  to 
Louvain,  to  Fribourg  or  to  Munich,  where  there  are 
a  few  Italian  lay  students.  But  this  remedy  can  be 
enjoyed  by  only  a  small  number.  Therefore  many 
Italian  Catholics  and  the  students  themselves,  long  for 

388 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

the  foundation  of  a  non-state  university,  such  as  exists, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  many  other  countries,  but  this  hope 
does  not,  unfortunately,  appear  to  be  nearing  realiza- 
tion. 

This  study  of  Catholic  universities  in  Rome  and 
throughout  the  world  carries  with  it  its  own  conclu- 
sion: Catholicism  does  not  fear  the  light  of  modern 
science;  on  the  contrary,  it  propagates  science  with 
all  its  strength  by  the  formation  of  excellent  univer- 
sity institutions.  Catholicism  has  nothing  to  dread 
from  attacks  levied  against  religion  in  the  name  of 
science.  It  is  now  admirably  equipped  for  defense. 
Besides  the  universities  for  higher  education,  the 
Church  provides  for  secondary  education  in  thousands 
of  boys'  high  schools ;  and  in  the  primary  schools  where 
Christian  masters  teach  the  vast  mass  of  the  children 
of  the  poorer  classes.  Thus,  the  Church  has  not 
shirked  her  mission:  "Go  ye  and  teach  all  nations," 
euntes  docete  omnes  gentes. 

The  question  of  neutrality  in  the  primary  schools  is 
assuming  great  importance  in  many  countries  at  this 
time,  so  that  this  branch  of  popular  education  deeply 
interests  the  Church.  There  are  principles  which  she 
cannot  overlook.  First  of  all,  it  cannot  be  permitted 
that  a  child  should  be  brought  up  without  any  idea 
of  God  or  of  religion,  and,  which  is  still  worse,  in  a 
spirit  of  hatred  towards  God  and  religion.  Further- 
more, it  has  been  proved  by  experience  that  the 
families  of  the  poorer  classes  cannot  teach  their  chil- 
dren themselves,  having  neither  the  time  nor  the  means 
to  do  so.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  these  chil- 

389 


THE  VATICAN 

dren  should  receive  religious  instruction  in  public 
schools.  But  only  a  denominational  school  can  attain 
this  end.  That  is  why  the  Catholic  Church  in  every 
part  of  the  world,  as  indeed  all  dissenting  religions, 
is  demanding  denominational  schools;  or  that  the 
minister  of  religion,  shall  at  least,  be  allowed  to  enter 
the  public  school  to  see  that  the  children  are  given 
religious  instruction,  that  he  shall  be  respected  in  the 
school,  and  that  in  the  teaching  of  other  subjects,  re- 
ligious neutrality  shall  be  strictly  observed. 

But  is  such  a  concession  possible?  Is  it  possible  to 
confound  neutrality  in  teaching  and  scientific  objec- 
tivity? The  teacher  has,  it  is  often  said,  no  business 
to  express  his  preference,  or  to  declare  any  opinion. 
He  has  merely  to  lay  scientific  truth  before  the  chil- 
dren. He  must  let  facts  speak  for  themselves.  He 
must  be  the  phonograph  of  nature  and  of  history. 
Thus,  and  thus  alone,  will  the  school  be  neutral  and 
the  mind  left  free  to  form  its  own  judgment.  This 
apparently  simple  theory  has  today  many  attractions 
for  certain  advanced  thinkers.  Whether  scientific  or 
not,  it  is  too  evident  that  neutrality  so  practiced  has 
certain  defects,  and  is  not  only  inadmissible,  but  is,  in 
fact,  impracticable.  A  teacher  is  not,  and  cannot  be, 
a  person  who  merely  relates,  describes,  explains.  He 
is,  even  when  he  thinks  he  does  no  more  than  teach,  a 
living  person  who  judges,  who  weighs,  who  blames, 
and  who  praises ;  in  a  word,  who  has  preferences.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  there  is  no  teaching,  however  cold  it 
may  be,  that  does  not  suggest  certain  preferences. 
Therefore  the  problem  which  a  teacher  has  to  solve 

390 


CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

is  not,  How  are  we  to  abstain  from  suggesting  prefer- 
ences? because  such  abstention  is  impossible,  but  it 
becomes,  What  preferences  have  we  the  right  to  sug- 
gest ?  This  is  a  very  difficult  problem  for  a  reasoning 
being  to  solve,  because  we  do  not  teach  what  we  will; 
we  do  not  even  teach  what  we  know  or  what  we  think 
we  know ;  we  teach  what  we  are. 

And  indeed  that  is  what,  at  the  present  time,  Cath- 
olic parents  complain  of  the  world  over,  rightly  or 
wrongly.  Professor  Bongle,  who  is  not  a  Catholic 
writer,  says  on  this  point:  "Wrongly?  So  be  it. 
But  if,  just  like  you,  they  wish  to  show  their  children 
what  are  their  'preferences,'  in  the  name  of  what  prin- 
ciple will  you  refuse  them  such  a  natural  right? 
Should  they  not  also  be  free  to  'teach  what  they  are'  ?" 
Furthermore,  the  best  known  enemies  of  Catholic 
teaching  have  openly  declared  in  the  French  Chamber 
of  Deputies  that  neutral  schools  cannot  exist,  that 
they  are  impossible,  and  that  the  word  neutrality  was 
put  into  the  law  on  primary  education  simply  to  hood- 
wink Catholics!  This  explains  why,  in  1909,  the 
French  hierarchy  condemned  neutral  schools  and  cer- 
tain manuals  of  history  and  moral  science  used  in  the 
French  public  schools,  which  were  of  a  peculiarly 
aggressive  nature  in  their  denunciation  of  Catholi- 
cism. It  also  explains  the  numerous  associations 
formed  by  Catholic  parents,  to  watch  over  the  teach- 
ing in  the  public  schools,  and  to  remedy,  in  as  far  as 
possible,  the  evils  of  the  atheistic  and  anti-Catholic 
instruction  which  the  law  has  rendered  obligatory  for 
Catholic  children  in  France. 

26  391 


THE  VATICAN 

To  these  measures,  the  French  sectarians  proudly 
reply  that  they  have  not  to  bow  before  the  injunctions 
of  the  bishops,  nor  to  submit  to  their  influence.  But 
if  the  bishops  are  absolutely  logical  and  sane,  fighting 
against  them  is  fighting  against  reason  and  common 
sense,  and  our  foes  are  left  in  a  strange  dilemma. 
Besides,  they  have  to  war  not  alone  with  the  bishops, 
but  with  all  sincere  Catholic  parents  and  indeed  with 
all  the  honest  thinking  people  who  sustain  them  in 
this  struggle.  They  have  thus  created  a  political 
difficulty,  the  consequences  of  which  cannot  be  calcu- 
lated, for  nothing  is  more  persistent  than  religious 
passion,  when  once  aroused. 

In  this  extremely  important  debate,  we  have  seen 
a  French  minister  come  forward  and  utter  on  the  floor 
of  the  House  such  wretched  sophistry,  as  this :  "How 
can  Catholic  parents  know  anything  about  and  dis- 
cuss intelligently  the  merits  of  these  school  manuals 
against  which  they  raise  their  voices?  These  manuals 
have  been  placed  on  the  Index;  if  they  are  good 
Catholics,  they  must  not  read  books  which  are  on  the 
Index.  So  they  are  acting  as  blind  men  when  they 
obey  the  bishops'  injunctions." 

Quite  so;  and  they  do  it  in  perfect  confidence;  for 
Catholic  parents  know  their  bishops  and  have  faith 
in  them.  They  know  that  when  their  bishops,  when 
the  whole  corps  of  the  bishops  of  France,  promulgate 
a  collective  letter,  denouncing  indignantly  the  serious 
attacks  made  in  the  schools  against  their  religion,  no 
mistake  is  being  made,  that  only  the  truth  is  being 
spoken. 

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CATHOLICISM  AND  EDUCATION 

Having  discussed  what  Rome  is  actually  doing  for 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  we  would  leave  our  work 
unfinished  if  we  failed  to  show  what  is  the  true  and 
special  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church,  which  we  will 
take  up  in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  IX 

WHAT  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TEACHES 

Scholastic  Philosophy — Dogmatic  and  Moral  Theology — Holy 
Scripture — Canon  Law — Ecclesiastical  History — The  Other 
Sacred  Sciences  Emanating  from  Catholic  Doctrine:  the 
Liturgy,  Ascetic  Theology,  and  Pastoral  Theology. 

THOUGH  the  Catholic  Church  cannot  remain  indif- 
ferent to  any  human  science  which  enables  her  to 
confirm  and  defend  the  laws  of  God  against  the  at- 
tacks constantly  made  in  the  name  of  modern  prog- 
ress, yet  she  has  a  special  domain  of  her  own,  the 
sacred  sciences  founded  on  revelation.  Theology 
belongs  especially  to  the  Church;  she  lays  down  its 
principles,  develops  the  conclusions  to  be  deducted 
therefrom,  determines  and  enunciates  the  affirmations, 
and  thus  founds  a  logical  science  based  on  faith. 

The  study  of  theology  must  necessarily  be  preceded 
by  that  of  philosophy,  by  which  the  mind  is  taught  to 
conquer  truth  scientifically,  and  is  led  by  the  exercise 
of  powers  of  reasoning  to  acquire  a  body  of  natural 
truths  concerning  God,  the  human  soul,  morals  and 
doctrines,  which  brings  it  to  the  threshold  of  theology 
and  of  revealed  religion.  Hence  the  truth  of  Origen's 
declaration  that  philosophy  acts  as  the  prelude  to 
Christianity. 

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WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

The  Church  has  a  philosophy  all  her  own :  scholastic 
philosophy,  which  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X  have  brought 
into  honor  again,  and  have  rendered  obligatory  in  all 
our  theological  seminaries.  Scholastic  philosophy 
flourished  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  is  particularly  em- 
bodied in  the  teachings  of  "The  Angel-Doctor,"  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  whose  work  as  philosopher  and 
theologian  is  enormous  in  extent  and  depth.  Scho- 
lasticism is  the  philosophy  of  the  Holy  Fathers,  uni- 
fied and  presented  in  didactic  form.  The  enemies  of 
the  Church  have  always  distained  and  despised  scho- 
lastic philosophy,  and  they  succeeded  until  recent 
years,  in  discrediting  it.  Thus  they  sought,  by  clever 
tactics,  to  deprive  the  Church  of  a  powerful  weapon 
against  their  new  doctrines. 

We  cannot  give  here  a  full  description  of  such  vast 
subjects  as  scholastic  philosophy,  dogmatic  and  moral 
theology  and  the  other  sacred  sciences,  exegesis,  canon 
law,  Church  history,  liturgy,  asceticism,  et  cetera; 
but  we  shall  merely  say  enough  on  each  subject  to 
give  our  readers  a  clear  impression  of  these  branches 
of  Catholic  teaching. 

PHILOSOPHY 

Philosophy  is  the  natural  and  superior  knowledge 
of  things.  It  is  a  science,  that  is  to  say,  a  collection 
of  truths  and  conclusions,  rigorously  bound  one  to  the 
other.  It  is  not  an  uncertain  idea  concerning  the  un- 
known, the  undetermined,  the  mysterious ;  it  is  not,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  more  or  less  sustained  meditation, 
a  deep  and  searching  contemplation,  a  defined  and 

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learned  doubt ;  it  does  not  consist  in  raising  important 
questions,  in  comparing  hypotheses  and  various  solu- 
tions, in  measuring  probabilities,  in  raising  numerous 
questions  without  solving  them;  it  does  not  consist  in 
offering  temporary  solutions,  or  even  approximate, 
solutions.  The  highest  conclusions  and  indeed  the 
most  philosophic,  if  they  do  not  absolutely  lead  to  a 
conclusion,  are  not  philosophy.  Philosophy  exists 
only  in  so  far  as  it  firmly  asserts  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete system  of  absolute  truths. 

This  shows  the  difference  between  scholastic  phi- 
losophy and  the  philosophy  taught  in  most  of  the 
state  universities,  which  do  not  give  a  course  on  doc- 
trine, but  merely  expose  the  principal  philosophical 
systems  of  various  authors  without  approving  or 
combating  them,  or  which  seek  to  create  new  methods 
of  a  more  or  less  ingenious  nature.  Philosophy, 
moreover,  is  a  natural  science,  that  is  to  say,  a  science 
acquired  by  natural  forces  alone,  by  principles  and 
lights  of  reason  only.  There  are  revealed  truths 
which  are  the  starting  point  of  reasoned  researches; 
but  the  truths  in  which  sacred  theology  is  founded 
cannot,  as  such,  become  the  principles  on  which  phi- 
losophy is  based.  It  is  impossible  to  confound  these 
two  sciences  in  spite  of  their  close  relationship. 
Philosophy,  and  in  its  path  Christian  philosophy,  as- 
serts all  its  principles  in  the  name  of  evidence,  never 
in  the  name  of  authority. 

And  finally,  it  is  the  higher  knowledge  of  things; 
it  seeks  first  causes,  final  reasons;  it  rises  even  to  an 
examination  of  the  most  general  of  laws.  From  this 

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WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

point  of  view  it  deals  with  all  nature  and  with  all 
mankind,  soul  and  body,  and  with  God  Himself.  Its 
object  is  universal,  but  it  only  approaches  these  con- 
ditions in  a  lofty  manner,  which  prevents  us  from 
confounding  it  with  the  other  special  sciences.  To 
it  are  reserved  the  noblest  of  all  objects,  that  is  to  say, 
the  soul  and  God. 

Nothing  is  more  important  than  the  possession  of 
the  philosophical  spirit,  whether  it  be  applied  to  his- 
tory, law,  politics,  sciences,  letters  or  eloquence. 
Cicero  declared  that  philosophers  had  taught  him 
more  in  the  matter  of  eloquence  than  professional 
rhetoricians.  It  is  indeed  philosophy  which  gives  us 
just,  general  and  luminous  ideas;  it  elevates  and  en- 
lightens everything  it  deals  with;  it  develops  the  habit 
of  reflection,  strengthens  the  mind  and  familiarizes 
us  with  the  study  of  laws  and  causes. 

The  moral  usefulness  of  philosophy  is  still  more 
remarkable.  It  is  philosophy  that  makes  it  possible 
for  us  to  analyze  our  own  feelings,  to  understand 
those  of  our  neighbors  and  thus  to  enter  into  the 
secrets  of  the  human  heart.  This  intimate  knowledge 
of  human  nature,  observed  both  from  within  and 
without,  this  "know  thyself"  of  Socrates,  is  the  first 
condition  for  wise  self-government  and  for  governing 
others. 

Philosophy  embraces  three  important  sciences: 
logic,  metaphysics  and  moral  science. 

Logic  is  rational  philosophy,  that  is  to  say,  it  is 
that  part  of  philosophy  that  deals  with  reason  itself 
examined  in  its  actions  and  its  conceptions,  or  the 

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reflex  objects  of  the  mind.  Thought  as  such,  and 
opposed  to  reality,  is  therefore  the  object  of  logical 
science.  To  sum  up,  logical  science  is  the  art  of  di- 
recting the  reason,  of  exercising  it  methodically  and 
easily  while  avoiding  error.  It  is  also  called  the  art 
of  thinking,  the  art  of  good  judgment,  the  science  of 
reasoning,  the  science  of  demonstration. 

Metaphysics  is  that  part  of  philosophy  which  deals 
with  the  being  from  the  standpoint  of  the  most  ele- 
vated reality.  It  differs  from  logical  science,  which 
deals  with  the  ideal  being,  with  reasoning  beings, 
with  the  laws  of  thought  and  of  reasoning ;  from  moral 
science,  which  deals  with  the  moral  being  and  the 
order  to  which  he  belongs;  from  mathematical  and 
physical  science,  which  deals  with  the  real  or  possible 
being  from  a  less  elevated  standpoint,  his  dimensions, 
qualities  or  sensible  elements.  Metaphysics  has  to 
do  with  the  immaterial;  if  it  has  anything  to  do  with 
bodies,  it  only  considers  them  in  a  spiritual  manner, 
that  is  to  say,  as  beings,  substances,  natures,  causes 
and  not  as  measured,  counted,  divided,  acting  on  the 
senses. 

Metaphysics  may  be  divided  into  two  parts :  a  gen- 
eral division  which  deals  with  being  and  all  relating 
thereto  (ontology)  ;  a  special  division  which  deals  suc- 
cessively with  the  world  (cosmology,  natural  philoso- 
phy), the  soul  (psychology),  and  God  (theodicy). 

The  most  elevated  matters  are  studied  and  solved 
by  the  light  of  reason  which  arrives  at  conclusions  in 
accordance  with  the  Catholic  faith;  as,  for  instance, 
in  cosmology,  the  distinction  of  the  world  from  God, 

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WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

and  consequently  the  impossibility  of  pantheism;  the 
origin  of  the  world  and  of  creation;  the  order  and 
laws  of  nature;  miracles;  living  bodies,  and  life. 

In  psychology  are  examined  the  spirituality  and 
immortality  of  the  soul,  the  origin  of  the  soul,  its 
liberty,  the  soul  after  death  and  its  extraordinary  or 
peculiar  states  during  life,  such  as  sleep,  dreams, 
somnambulism,  hypnosis,  et  cetera,  the  qualities  and 
habits  of  the  soul,  the  origin  of  tongues. 

In  theodicy  are  considered  the  existence  of  God, 
nature,  one,  distinct,  simple;  the  attributes  of  God, 
truth,  goodness,  perfection,  infinity,  immutability, 
eternity,  immensity,  science,  will,  union,  justice, 
mercy,  power,  providence. 

In  morals  are  studied  the  morality  of  human 
actions,  virtues  and  vices,  the  eternal,  natural  law; 
rights  and  duties;  domestic  morality;  marriage,  the 
family;  social  morality;  the  origin,  object  and  power 
of  civil  society;  the  relations  between  Church  and 
state ;  the  relations  of  states  among  themselves,  inter- 
national law;  and  the  philosophy  of  history. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  many  distinguished 
minds  are  attracted  by  such  studies  and  prefer  philo- 
sophical work  to  any  other.  In  this  field  is  more  than 
enough  labor  to  occupy  a  lifetime. 

THEOLOGY 

Theology  is,  properly  speaking,  the  special  and  pe- 
culiar science  of  the  Church,  being  founded  on  the 
formulas!  of  revelation  which  the  Church  claims  as 
exclusively  hers.  It  is,  therefore,  the  natural  science 

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of  God  and  of  things  in  their  relation  to  Him.  It  is 
divided  into  dogmatic  and  moral  theology,  the  study 
of  which  must  necessarily  be  preceded  by  a  prelimi- 
nary understanding  of  the  true  religion — the  Church, 
her  constitution  and  her  authority ;  and  the  theological 
sources — tradition  and  Holy  Scripture. 

Dogmatic  theology  deals  with  revealed  truths, 
which  have  been  defined  by  the  Church  and  which  we 
must  believe — the  dogmas.  It  is  the  scientific  expo- 
sition of  the  Apostles'  creed  which  contains  them  all 
in  substance;  and  the  different  divisions  of  dogmatic 
theology  will  be  found  to  correspond  to  the  articles 
of  the  Apostles'  creed : 

I.  God  (De  Deo  uno  et  trino).     The  doctrine  of 
God  as  essentially  one;  His  existence,  essence  and 
attributes.     The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

II.  Creation  (De  Deo  creante).     The  doctrine  of 
the  creation  of  the  world,  of  man,  of  the  angels. 

III.  Redemption     (De    Deo    Redemptore).     a. 
Christology.     The   doctrine   of   the   person   of   Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Second  Person  of  the  Most 
Holy  Trinity,     b.  Soteriology.     The  doctrine  of  the 
work  of  the  Redeemer  which  is  crowned  by  His  de- 
scent into  Limbo  and  His  ascension  into  Heaven,     c. 
Mariology.     The  doctrine  of  the  Divine  Maternity. 

d.  Grace  (De  gratia).     The  doctrine  of  the  absolute 
necessity  of  grace  to  withstand  sin;  the  forgiveness 
of  sin ;  the  sanctification  of  the  soul ;  the  Holy  Ghost. 

e.  Sacraments  (De  sacramentis).     The  doctrine  of 
the    sacraments    in    general    and    in    particular,     f. 
Eschatology  (De  novissimis) .     The  doctrine  dealing 

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WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

with  the  death  and  judgment  of  the  individual,  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  and  the  general  judgment. 

Moral  theology  deals  with  the  practical  truths  of 
morality,  with  everything  concerning  human  actions, 
for  which  it  is  the  rule,  regula  agendorum,  enlightened 
by  faith.  Morality  is  strictly  united  to  faith.  As  is 
given  religion,  so  is  given  morality.  The  Christian 
faith  leads  to  Christian  morality ;  Mussulman  religion 
engenders  Mussulman  morality;  ancient  or  modern 
pagan  morality  follows  naturally  in  the  wake  of  an- 
cient pagan  religious  or  present  pagan  belief.  In  a 
word,  what  we  believe,  we  practice.  Christian  moral- 
ity is  recognized,  even  by  the  enemies  of  the  Church, 
to  be  the  purest  and  most  elevated ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
faith  of  the  Church  is  also  the  only  true  faith. 

Moral  theology  also  includes  treatises  on:  human 
actions  and  their  morality;  the  conscience;  the  laws, 
their  legitimacy,  their  binding  nature,  their  divisions — 
natural  and  divine,  ecclesiastical,  civil,  penal,  cus- 
tomary; sins,  their  nature,  their  degree,  their  distinc- 
tions, inner  sins,  capital  sins — pride,  avarice,  sloth, 
envy,  anger,  lust;  the  virtues — faith,  hope,  charity. 
Human  virtues  grouped  under  the  four  cardinal  vir- 
tues, justice,  prudence,  fortitude,  temperance,  are 
studied  chiefly  in  philosophy.  Under  moral  theology 
are  also  grouped  the  ten  precepts  of  the  Decalogue  or 
God's  Commandments;  the  seven  precepts  or  com- 
mandments of  the  Church;  the  nature  and  principle 
of  justice  and  law,  the  violation  of  law  or  injustice, 
restitution;  the  general  principle  of  contracts:  gra- 
tuitous contracts  and  onerous  contracts;  the  special 

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positions  filled  by  laymen:  judges,  advocates,  pro- 
curators, ushers,  bailiffs,  notaries,  accusers,  witnesses, 
doctors,  pharmacists,  guardians,  artisans,  workmen; 
obligations  due  to  ecclesiastical  precepts;  holiness  of 
living;  celibacy;  the  ecclesiastical  habit  and  tonsure; 
cohabitation  with  women;  gaming;  bearing  of  wea- 
pons for  war  or  hunting;  trading;  special  obligations 
binding  bishops,  parish  priests,  canons ;  the  privileges 
of  clerics  and  of  bishops;  the  benefices  of  clerics  in 
the  religious  state;  vocation;  vows  of  poverty,  chastity, 
obedience;  privileges  of  regulars;  the  sacraments  in 
general,  their  manner  and  form,  the  minister,  the  sub- 
ject, the  particulars  of  each  sacrament,  dealing  with 
details  and  practical  cases;  censure  and  ecclesiastical 
penalties:  excommunication,  suspension,  interdiction, 
the  Index,  cessation  of  divine  worship;  the  adminis- 
tration of  sacraments,  the  right  to  ecclesiastical  sepul- 
ture in  a  given  spot;  irregularities,  that  is  to  say,  the 
canonical  impediments  which  prevent  a  layman  from 
becoming  a  cleric,  or  a  cleric  from  rising  to  a  superior 
order,  or  which  prevent  an  ecclesiastic  from  exercising 
the  functions  peculiar  to  his  order;  indulgences  and 
jubilees,  their  concession  and  their  conditions. 

HOLY   SCRIPTURE 

Holy  Scripture  also  belongs  to  the  special  domain 
of  the  Church  and  is  the  object  of  a  science  which  she 
dominates.  It  is  the  word  of  God,  the  source  of  all 
theology,  the  necessary  basis  of  preaching  and  of 
Christian  teaching.  A  careful  study  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture requires  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  jsacred 

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WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

languages,  Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  with  some  living 
languages,  German  and  English,  in  order  to  derive 
the  benefit  of  the  various  commentaries  which  have 
been  published  in  those  languages.  One  must  also 
learn  biblical  geography  and  sacred  archeology. 
Finally,  before  commencing  the  translation  and  study 
of  the  sacred  books,  it  is  indispensable  to  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  general  introduction  which  has  for  its 
object  the  knowledge  of  all  necessary  details  con- 
cerning the  origin,  authority,  history  and  rules  of 
interpretation  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments. 

The  Bible  is  the  collection  of  the  writings  recog- 
nized by  the  Church  as  inspired.  These  writings  are 
divided  into  two  principal  groups, — the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament.  The  Old  Testament  includes  all 
those  writings  which  are  anterior  to  the  coming  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  the  New,  all  those  which  were  pro- 
duced after  His  death.  The  Old  Testament  com- 
prises forty-three  books,  twenty-two  of  which  still 
exist  in  Hebrew.  The  others  were  written  in  Greek, 
or  else  they  no  longer  exist  in  the  original  language. 
Those  which  we  still  have  in  Hebrew  are  the  only  ones 
recognized  by  the  Jews  today,  and  are  called  proto- 
canonical;  the  others  are  called  deuterocanonical. 

The  protocanonical  books  are  divided  by  the  Jews 
into  three  parts:  the  law,  the  prophets  and  the  hagi- 
ographers.  The  Prologue  of  Ecclesiastes  and  the 
44th  verse  of  chapter  24  of  St.  Luke  give  this  division. 
The  commentators  generally  divide  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  another  manner :  into  historical  books ;  didac- 


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tic  or  doctrinal  and  moral  books ;  and  prophetic  books 
or  those  which  announce  future  events. 

The  New  Testament  contains:  The  four  Gospels 
of  Saints  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and  John;  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles;  the  fourteen  Epistles  of  St.  Paul; 
the  Epistle  of  St.  James;  the  two  Epistles  of  St. 
Peter,  the  three  Epistles  of  St.  John,  the  Epistle  of 
St.  Jude ;  and  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  John,  the  Apos- 
tle. 

"The  Bible  would  be  the  greatest  monument  of  the  human 
mind,"  said  'Lacordaire,  "if  it  were  not  the  work  of  God,  and 
one  to  which  even  His  enemies  are  forced  to  pay  homage. 
Homer  never  equalled  the  recital  of  the  life  of  the  patriarchs 
in  Genesis ;  Pindar  never  attained  the  sublime  heights  reached 
by  the  prophets ;  Thucydides  and  Tacitus  are  not  comparable 
as  historians  with  Moses;  the  laws  of  Exodus  and  of  Levit- 
icus leave  far  behind  them  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus  and  of 
Numa;  Socrates  and  Plato  were  surpassed,  even  before  the 
Gospels  appeared,  by  Solomon,  who  bequeathed  us  in  the 
Song  of  Songs  the  most  admirable  chant  of  divine  love  in- 
spired by  created  lips,  and  in  Ecclesiastes,  the  eternally 
melancholy  hymn  of  fallen  humanity;  finally,  the  Gospel, 
completing  that  unique  book,  placed  on  it  the  seal  of  a 
hitherto  unknown  beauty  which,  remaining  inimitable,  has  no 
term  of  comparison  throughout  the  world." 

The  general  introduction  to  Holy  Scripture  deals 
with  inspiration,  which  is  the  distinguishing  character 
of  the  Holy  Books.  It  is  a  supernatural  succor 
which,  influencing  the  will  of  the  sacred  writer,  ex- 
cites him  and  determines  him  to  write,  enlightening 
his  understanding  in  such  manner  as  to  suggest  to  him 

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WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

at  least  the  basis  of  that  which  he  is  to  say.  Such  is 
the  doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church.  St.  Peter  in  his 
Second  Epistle,  the  first  chapter,  the  twenty-first 
verse,  and  St.  Paul  in  his  second  letter  to  Timothy, 
the  third  chapter,  the  sixteenth  verse,  declare  that  the 
sacred  authors  were  inspired  by  God. 

The  inspiration  of  the  entire  Bible  could  only  be 
demonstrated  by  the  authority  of  the  Church,  con- 
trary to  the  opinion  expressed  by  dissenters  who  seek 
to  establish  it  on  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  Holy 
Books. 

A  special  examination  has  been  conducted  of  late 
years,  in  the  light  of  the  rapid  progress  made  in  natu- 
ral sciences,  to  see  whether  the  inspiration  of  the 
Bible  extends  to  scientific  questions  on  which  it  acci- 
dentally touches.  Everyone  admits  that  the  object 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  not  to  reveal  directly  to  us 
scientific  truths,  but  religious  truths.  "The  inten- 
tion of  Holy  Scripture,"  said  the  learned  Cardinal 
Baronius,  "is  to  teach  us  how  to  reach  Heaven,  and 
not  how  Heaven  is  made."  Inspired  authors  often 
spoke  according  to  the  ordinary  belief  of  their  days; 
and  one  cannot  condemn  popular  phraseology  as 
reprehensible. 

The  inspired  writings  cannot  be  known  to  us  as 
such  except  by  the  Church's  designation.  The 
Church,  therefore,  has  drawn  up  a  catalogue  in  which 
the  inspired  books  are  enumerated.  That  catalogue 
was  named  canon,,  rule,  and  the  books  contained 
therein  are  called  canonical  books. 

The  Council  of  Trent  at  its  fourth  session,  in  Febru- 

405 


THE  VATICAN 

ary  and  March,  1546,  finally  promulgated  the  canon 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  which  is  found  at 
the  beginning  of  all  our  Bibles,  and  admitted,  with- 
out any  difference  whatever,  as  canonical  and  in- 
spired, in  their  entirety  and  in  all  their  parts,  the 
proto-  and  deuterocanonical  books.  Several  councils 
had  already  discussed  the  matter,  and  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870  in  its  third  session,  chapter  second, 
renewed  the  canon  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

A  certain  number  of  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  are  styled  apocryphal  books  or  merely 
apocrypha.  Catholics  thus  designate  those  books 
which  have  not  been  recognized  as  canonical  by  the 
Church.  There  are  115  in  the  Old  Testament  and  99 
in  the  New.  A  certain  number  of  these  apocryphal 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  were  composed  with 
the  laudable  intention  of  edifying  and  interesting  the 
faithful.  They  are  poetic  or  legendary  fictions,  in- 
tended to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  Christians.  But 
others  were  composed  with  bad  intentions  by  heretics 
who  hoped  by  this  means  to  spread  their  errors  broad- 
cast. 

Having  dealt  with  the  inspiration  and  canonicity  of 
the  Holy  Books,  the  general  introduction  next  con- 
siders the  original  texts  and  versions  of  the  Bible,  and 
the  rules  of  interpretation  or  hermeneutics  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  We  must  also  understand  the  calendar, 
the  weights  and  measures  of  the  Hebrews  and  must 
know  the  summarized  history  of  the  interpretation  of 
the  Holy  Books  by  the  Jews  and  Christians  up  to  our 
own  time. 

40S 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

After  these  preliminary  but  indispensable  subjects 
have  been  mastered,  the  teaching  of  Holy  Writ  next 
deals  with  each  one  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  proving  their  authenticity  and  integrity, 
and  discussing  the  scientific  questions  which  are  raised 
therein.  We  will  give  a  very  brief  sketch  of  this 
proceeding,  adopting  for  the  Old  Testament  the  di- 
vision into  the  historical,  the  didactic  and  sapiential, 
and  the  prophetic  books. 

First  let  us  consider  the  historical  books.  In  the 
Pentateuch,  or  the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Moses,  the  liberator  and  law-giver  of  the  He- 
brews about  the  fifteenth  century  before  Christ, 
relates,  with  the  help  of  divine  inspiration,  the  origin 
of  the  world  and  the  history  of  God's  people  until  the 
moment  when  they  are  about  to  enter  the  Promised 
Land.  This  book  has  been  violently  attacked  by 
modern  scientists,  but  all  the  new  discoveries  in  the 
domain  of  cosmogony,  Egyptology  and  ethnography 
tend  more  and  more  to  confirm  the  text  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. The  discussions  deal  with  Mosaic  cosmogony, 
the  origin  and  history  of  the  first  man,  the  deluge,  the 
tower  of  Babel  and  the  dispersion  of  peoples,  the  ex- 
istence of  patriarchs  and  Mosaic  legislation. 

The  Book  of  Josue  relates  the  history  of  the  con- 
quest of  the  Promised  Land,  and  the  division  of  the 
conquered  country  among  the  tribes  of  Israel. 

The  Book  of  Judges,  which  is  attributed  to  the 

Prophet  Samuel,  relates  the  most  salient  traits  of  the 

history  of  the  people  of  God,  from  the  death  of  Josue 

to  about  the  time  of  Samuel,  who  established  the  first 

27  407 


THE  VATICAN 

king  of  Israel.  The  number  of  judges  or  heads  of 
the  people  was  thirteen  or  fourteen,  according  to 
whether  we  count  or  not  among  them  Abimelech,  the 
usurper. 

The  Book  of  Ruth  makes  known  to  us  the  gene- 
alogy of  David,  founder  of  the  royal  race,  and  of  that 
of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  history  of  a  Moabite, 
Ruth,  provided  the  sacred  historian  with  an  oppor- 
tunity for  relating  the  origin  of  the  true  founder  of 
the  Israelite  monarchy.  Ruth  lived  in  the  days  of  the 
Judges.  The  Book  carries  us  into  a  homestead  in 
Bethlehem,  and  traces  a  delightful  picture  of  domes- 
tic life  in  those  times.  It  is  a  charming  idyl  of  in- 
comparable freshness,  quaintly  graceful  and  drawn 
with  sober,  delicate  touches  which  reveal  exquisite  art. 

The  first  two  Books  of  Kings  give  the  history  of 
Samuel  and  that  of  the  two  kings  whom  he  conse- 
crated, Saul  and  David.  The  other  two  Books  of 
Kings  contain  the  history  of  457  years,  from  the  ad- 
vent of  Solomon,  1015  B.  C.,  to  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple,  558  B.  C.  It  is  the  history  of  the  sepa- 
rated kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 

The  Paralipomenon  or  Chronicles,  which  tradition 
generally  attributes  to  Esdras,  supplements  the  omis- 
sions of  the  Books  of  Kings. 

The  second  of  the  two  Books  of  Esdras  is  also 
known  as  the  book  of  Nehemias.  The  first  relates 
the  events  which  occurred  from  the  end  of  the  cap- 
tivity in  Babylon  to  the  time  of  Esdras  and  gives  us 
the  edict  of  Cyrus  allowing  the  captive  Jews  to  return 
to  Palestine  and  the  return  of  the  exiles  to  their 

408 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

country  where  they  raised  up  the  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Next  we  are  told  what  the  Jews  did  in  Je- 
rusalem under  the  reigns  of  Darius  and  of  Artaxerxes. 
The  Book  of  Nehemias  is  a  species  of  autobiography. 
Nehemias  relates  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  and  all 
that  he  did  there,  either  alone  or  with  Esdras.  Esdras 
was  the  first  scribe  of  Israel,  a  doctor  and  reorganizer 
of  the  law,  the  Moses  of  the  return  from  the  Captivity. 
Nehemias  was  the  oldest  of  the  scribes  who  determined 
the  canon  or  catalogue  of  the  books  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  final  institution 
of  synagogues,  bidding  the  people  attend  public 
meetings  that  they  might  be  taught  the  law.  From 
the  time  of  Esdras,  the  scribes  continued  to  play  the 
part  of  prophets,  who  explained  to  the  people  the 
word  of  God  and  exhorted  them  to  practice  its  teach- 
ing. Their  college  still  existed  in  the  days  of  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  speaks  of  them  several  times 
in  the  Gospel. 

The  Book  of  Tobias  is  now  considered  by  Protes- 
tants to  be  a  pious  fiction.  Catholics,  on  the  contrary, 
accept  it  as  a  true  history,  the  authors  of  which  were 
Tobias,  the  father,  and  his  son,  also  called  Tobias. 
The  book  forms  a  whole  perfectly  coordinated  and 
disposed  with  admirable  art.  It  is  divided  into  six 
sections,  describing  the  virtues  and  trials  to  which 
Tobias  was  exposed,  the  journeys  of  Tobias,  the 
younger,  into  the  country  of  the  Medes,  his  marriage 
with  Sara,  his  return  to  Ninive,  the  appearance  of 
the  angel  Raphael,  and  an  account  of  the  last  years 
of  Tobias. 

409 


THE  VATICAN 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Book  of  Tobias,  many  modern 
critics  pretend  that  the  Book  of  Judith  is  a  fiction; 
and  yet  they  have  no  solid  reason  for  this  opinion. 
The  Book  of  Judith  relates  the  expedition  undertaken 
by  Holofernes,  the  general  of  the  king  of  Ninive's 
armies,  against  the  Israelites,  the  siege  of  Bethulia 
and  the  patriotic  action  of  Judith,  who  kills  Holofer- 
nes after  a  banquet  and  carries  back  his  head  to 
Bethulia,  thus  giving  victory  to  the  Israelites. 

The  Book  of  Esther  is  not  a  parable,  as  has  been 
stated  by  Protestants.  It  describes  feasts  which  were 
long  celebrated  by  the  Jews,  as  for  instance,  those  of 
the  Purim;  and  the  pictures  of  manners  and  customs 
which  it  gives  are  in  strict  accordance  with  everything 
we  know  concerning  the  customs  of  the  Persians. 
Strangely  enough,  the  name  of  God  is  not  once  men- 
tioned in  the  whole  Book  of  Esther,  perhaps  because 
it  was  written  at  Susan,  in  the  midst  of  pagans;  but 
if  He  is  not  therein  named,  He  appears  on  every 
page.  It  is  His  Providence  which  arranges  all  events, 
and  which  enabled  the  Jews  to  triumph  over  the  wiles 
of  their  enemies.  The  story  occurs  in  the  reign  of 
Assuerus,  who  is  none  other  than  Xerxes,  son  of 
Darius.  The  queen,  his  wife,  Esther,  was  a  Jewess. 
Aman,  the  Prime  Minister,  obtains  from  his  master 
Assuerus  a  decree  by  which  the  Jews  are  to  be  perse- 
cuted. Mardochai,  Esther's  uncle,  who  had  refused 
to  submit  to  Aman's  arrogant  commands,  and  bend 
the  knee  before  him,  warns  his  niece,  who  appeals  to 
Assuerus,  touches  him  and  obtains  a  revocation  of  the 
decree,  and  Aman's  disgrace.  Racine  composed  his 

410 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

immortal   masterpiece   "Esther"    from   this   biblical 
drama. 

The  Books  of  Machabees  relate  the  troublous  times 
and  heroic  deeds  of  the  family  of  Machabees,  who 
energetically  fought  against  the  Syrians  and  estab- 
lished the  independence  of  their  country. 

After  the  historical  books  of  the  Bible,  we  take  up 
the  didactic  sapiential  books,  whose  object  is  chiefly 
to  teach  wisdom,  that  is  to  say,  the  rules  and  means 
of  holy  living;  whence  the  name  of  moral  books,  by 
which  they  are  sometimes  known.  The  Hebrews  used 
the  term  "poetic"  to  indicate  the  Books  of  Job,  the 
Psalms  and  the  Proverbs,  because  those  are  the  three 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  which  the  rules  of 
Hebraic  poetry  are  most  constantly  and  most  strictly 
observed. 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  class  Hebrew 
poems  in  the  literary  style  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  it  is  a  futile  task,  for  Aristotle's  poetic 
rules  do  not  give  us  the  necessary  form  of  every  kind 
of  poetry,  and  the  Book  of  Job,  though  not  a  drama 
in  the  Hellenic  style,  is  nevertheless  a  magnificent 
poem.  The  poetry  of  the  Bible  is  generally  lyrical, 
in  the  sense  that  the  poets  of  Israel  always  express 
the  personal  feelings  which  they  experience.  The 
true  character  of  Hebrew  chants  is  religious.  God, 
who  inspires  them,  ever  occupies  the  first  place,  when 
He  is  not,  indeed,  their  sole  subject.  Hence  the  en- 
thusiasm, the  lyrical  nature  of  the  poets  of  Israel,  and 
that  peculiar  accent  which  make  their  songs  those  of 
the  Christian  universe. 

411 


THE  VATICAN 

Hebraic  poetry  has  one  thing  in  common  with  the 
poetry  in  the  world, — its  language  is  full  of  brilliancy 
and  magnificence.  But  oriental  poets  are  still  more 
distinguished  for  their  boldness,  their  strong  figures, 
and  their  rich  coloring,  and  all  these  characteristics 
are  prominent  in  Biblical  poetry. 

The  poetical  books  of  the  Bible  are  written  in  verse, 
and  divided  very  often  into  strophes.  Hebrew  verses 
are  based,  not  like  Greek  and  Latin  verse  on  the  num- 
ber of  syllables,  nor,  like  French  verse,  on  the  number 
of  syllables  and  rhyme,  but  on  parallelism,  which  can 
be  defined  as  the  correspondence  of  one  verse  with 
another.  It  is  a  sort  of  thought  rhyme,  a  symmetry 
of  ideas,  ordinarily  expressed  twice  or  several  times 
in  different  terms,  sometimes  synonymous,  sometimes 
opposed.  Thus  in  Proverbs,  10 :20 : 

"The  tongue  of  the  just  is  choice  silver." 
"The  heart  of  the  wicked  is  nothing  worth." 

Hebrew  verse  is  also  based  either  on  its  prosodic 
quantity  of  syllables,  or  on  the  number  of  words. 
Each  member  of  the  parallelism  forms  a  verse  and  the 
verse  most  generally  used  by  the  Hebrews  is  the  hep- 
tasyllabic  verse,  or  verse  of  seven  syllables.  The 
Book  of  Job  furnished  the  best  example  of  these  rules. 
The  object  of  the  Book  of  Job  is  to  justify  Providence 
and  to  solve  the  problem  of  evil  in  the  world.  It 
treats  of  the  troubles  that  fell  upon  Job,  his  great 
patience  under  affliction  and  the  reward  which  God 
sent  him  as  a  recompense  for  so  much  virtue. 

Job  is  an  historical  personage  who  really  existed, 

412 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

nor  has  his  existence  ever  been  questioned  by  either 
Jews  or  Christians,  in  spite  of  certain  unfounded  con- 
tradictions raised  by  unbelievers.  The  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches  honor  him  as  a  saint  and  celebrate  his 
feast-day.  Job,  the  patriarch,  is  held  to  be  posterior 
to  Abraham,  but  anterior  to  Moses,  facts  which  may 
be  deduced  from  several  passages  in  the  book.  He 
is  not  himself  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  book 
which  bears  his  name.  It  is  uncertain  who  was  the 
writer  of  it,  but,  owing  to  certain  peculiarities  of  lan- 
guage and  style,  its  composition  is  usually  ascribed  to 
Solomon.  Critics  are  unanimous  in  considering  the 
Book  a  masterpiece  of  literature.  "The  prologue  of 
Goethe's  'Faust,'  "  says  Lord  Byron,  "is  taken  from 
Job,  which  is  the  first  drama  in  the  world,  and  perhaps 
the  most  ancient.  I  once  thought  of  composing  a 
'Job,'  but  I  found  it  too  sublime.  There  is  no  poetry 
that  I  can  compare  to  Job's  Book."  The  Apostle  St. 
James,  Epistle  5:11,  and  St.  Gregory  the  Great  state 
that  this  holy  patriarch  could  be  compared  with  Christ 
not  only  because  of  his  words,  but  because  of  his 
suffering. 

The  Book  of  Psalms  was  certainly  received  by  the 
Church  from  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  not  merely  as 
part  of  the  Bible,  but  also  as  a  liturgical  book  regu- 
larly used  in  the  synagogue  at  religious  meetings.  It 
consists  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  hymns,  almost  all  of 
w-hich  are  headed  by  a  title  which  shows  either  who 
their  author  was,  the  manner  in  which  they  were  to 
be  sung,  or  the  historical  circumstance  for  which  they 
were  composed.  The  greater  part  of  the  Psalms  were 

413 


THE  VATICAN 

written  by  David,  that  is  to  say,  they  date  from  the 
eleventh  century  B.  C.  Some  are  attributed  to 
Asaph,  David's  head  musician,  to  the  children  of 
Korea,  to  Heman  and  to  others.  The  ordinary  sub- 
ject of  the  Psalms  is  God  and  man,  not  any  particular 
individual  man,  but  mankind  in  general;  and  when 
David  speaks  in  his  own  name  and  of  himself  in  par- 
ticular, he  generalizes,  making  himself  the  mouthpiece 
of  humanity.  Many  Psalms,  called  Messianic,  relate 
to  the  Messias. 

The  author  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  was  King  Solo- 
mon. They  extol  wisdom,  exhort  young  men  to  fol- 
low the  paths  of  virtue  and  contain  a  number  of  great 
truths,  figuratively  expressed,  which  regulate  the 
morals  of  men.  The  style  is  poetical  and  very  clear. 
The  Holy  Fathers  have  often  quoted,  but  seldom 
commented  on,  this  book  of  the  Bible.  The  author  of 
Ecclesiastes,  or  he  who  speaks  to  the  assembly,  was 
also  Solomon.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  in  his  old 
age,  he  composed  this  species  of  concrete  discourse  to 
show  the  vanity  of  life  and  of  human  wisdom,  to  prove 
that  man  is  not  master  of  his  destiny,  that  happiness 
is  not  to  be  found  in  riches  and  in  fame,  but  in  ac- 
cepting things  as  God  sends  them.  Finally,  in  the 
epilogue,  he  offers  the  rule  of  life,  which  is  to  fear 
God  and  follow  His  commandments. 

The  Canticle  of  Canticles  is  so  called  because  it  is 
the  finest  of  songs.  This  book  also  is  attributed  to 
Solomon,  who  wrote  it  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt.  The  mysti- 
cal interpretation  refers  to  the  mystical  marriage  of 

414 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

the  Saviour  with  his  Church.  For  many  commen- 
tators, both  Jews  and  Christians,  the  marriage  of 
Solomon  with  the  Sulamite  is  a  mere  figure,  an  alle- 
gory, which  is  not  to  be  taken  as  fact,  but  as  meta- 
phorical. It  is  God's  alliance  with  his  people,  the 
relation  of  the  soul  to  God. 

The  Book  of  Wisdom  is,  of  all  the  writings  con- 
tained in  the  Greek  Bible,  that  where  the  language 
is  purest  and  most  remarkable  from  a  literary  point 
of  view.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  from 
150  to  130  B.  C.  Wisdom  is  first  considered  from 
the  intellectual  and  moral  standpoint  and  then  exam- 
ined historically. 

The  title  of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  like  that 
of  Ecclesiastes,  comes  from  the  use  which  was  made  of 
the  book  in  the  Church,  where  it  was  publicly  read. 
It  was  the  book  of  the  Church,  of  the  assembly.  Its 
author  was  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  who,  according  to 
general  opinion,  lived  in  Egypt  towards  the  year  280 
B.  C.,  under  the  Ptolemies.  His  grandson,  Jesus 
Ben  Sirach,  translated  his  grandfather's  work  into 
Greek  about  230  B.  C.  The  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
which  is  full  of  the  praises  of  the  Creator,  of  the  world 
and  the  saints  of  the  Old  Testament,  has  always  been 
considered  as  the  most  useful  of  the  sapiential  books, 
furnishing,  as  it  does,  all  sorts  of  precepts  for  the 
conduct  of  life. 

The  prophetic  books  form  the  third  great  division 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  prophet  is 
the  man  to  whom  God  reveals  His  will  in  a  super- 
natural manner  with  the  mission  of  communicating  it 

415 


THE  VATICAN 

to  men.  Prophecy  is  the  manifestation  of  that  divine 
will.  It,  therefore,  presupposes  revelation  and  mis- 
sion. When  a  prophecy  is  the  announcement  of 
future  events  which  can  only  be  known  to  God,  it  is 
also  called  prediction.  Rationalists  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  prophecy ;  but  as  they  are  forced  by  the  power 
of  evidence  to  acknowledge  the  absolute  authenticity 
of  certain  prophetic  books,  such  as  that  of  Michaes, 
for  instance,  who  predicted  the  Babylonian  captivity 
150  years  beforehand,  when  Babylon  was  not  even  an 
independent  state,  they  are  compelled  to  admit  that 
in  reality  there  have  been  such  things  as  prophecies. 
Nor  can  they  contradict  the  Messianic  prophecies, 
which  are  incontestably  anterior  to  the  events  which 
they  predict,  and  which  are  jealously  guarded  in  their 
integrity  by  the  very  enemies  of  Christians,  the  Jews 
themselves.  They  describe  in  every  detail  the  life  and 
especially  the  passion  of  Our  Lord. 

The  Old  Testament  contains  the  writings  of  sixteen 
prophets,  properly  so-called.  Four  among  them  are 
spoken  of  as  the  greater  prophets.  These  are: 
Isaias,  Jeremias,  Ezechiel  and  Daniel.  The  twelve 
others  bear  the  name  of  lesser  prophets  because  their 
prophecies  are  not  so  extensive.  These  are:  Osee, 
Joel,  Amos,  Abdias,  Jonas,  Micheas,  Nahum,  Haba- 
cuc,  Sophonias,  Aggeus,  Zacharias  and  Malachias. 
The  ancients  wrote  them  all  in  a  single  parchment 
or  volume,  and  the  Jews  counted  them  in  their  Canon 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  one  book. 

The  prophets  belonged  to  all  classes  of  society. 
J/eremias  and  some  others  were  of  sacerdotal  race  and 

416 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

Amos  was  a  shepherd.  Several  lived  in  Jerusalem 
and  others  in  the  midst  of  the  schismatics  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel.  In  general  they  led  a  very  austere 
life,  wearing  only  sackcloth.  Elias  was  covered  with 
the  skins  of  wild  animals.  Several  of  the  prophets, 
however,  were  married  and  sometimes  they  had  dis- 
ciples. Thus  Baruch,  himself  a  prophet,  acted  as 
secretary  to  Jeremias,  and  Eliseus  was  the  disciple 
of  Elias.  Most  of  the  prophets  suffered  persecu- 
tion at  the  hands  of  those  whom  they  threatened  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord  and  Isaias  suffered  martyrdom 
at  the  hands  of  his  wicked  son-in-law,  King  Manasses. 

Isaias  is  the  greatest  of  the  prophets,  on  account  of 
the  extent  and  importance  of  his  revelations,  as  well 
as  the  incomparable  brilliancy  of  his  style.  He  lived 
in  those  troublous  days  when  the  independence  of 
the  race  of  Jacob  was  threatened  by  two  rival  powers 
striving  one  against  the  other,  for  the  dominion  of 
the  world,  which  was  then  limited  to  Egypt  and  As- 
syria. He  continued  Moses'  work,  was  the  strength 
and  supporter  of  his  king  and  of  his  brethren,  and 
the  bulwark  of  their  nation. 

Jeremias  is  the  author  of  Prophecies  and  Lamenta- 
tions. Besides  these  two  books,  we  have  in  our  Catho- 
lic Bibles,  the  little  book  of  the  prophet  Baruch,  his 
scribe.  This  Book  of  Baruch's  so  delighted  La  Fon- 
taine, the  French  fabulist,  that  after  reading  it  he 
asked  all  his  friends :  "Have  you  read  Baruch?  He 
was  a  great  genius." 

Jeremias  appears  to  us,  from  the  collection  of  his 
prophecies,  to  have  been  full  of  piety,  penetrated 

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THE  VATICAN 

with  a  deep  sense  of  his  own  weakness,  sensitive,  even 
impressionable,  inclined  to  be  easily  discouraged,  but 
burning  with  zeal  for  the  law  of  God  and  animated 
by  feelings  of  the  purest  patriotism.  He  seems, 
however,  unfitted  to  fulfill  a  prophetic  mission  at  so 
agitated  a  time  as  that  of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  ruin  of  the  temple  of  Solomon  by  Nabu- 
chodonosor,  the  terrible  king  of  Babylon.  God 
thought  otherwise,  and  Jeremias's  prophetic  mission 
lasted  more  than  forty  years.  Amid  the  smoking 
ruins  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple,  he  composed 
his  immortal  lamentations,  where  his  exquisite  depth 
of  feeling  is  so  touchingly  manifested.  No  pen  has 
produced  elegies  comparable  to  those  of  the  prophet 
who  so  greatly  loved  the  city  and  the  hours  of  God, 
yet  was  unable  to  save  them  from  destruction.  No 
prophet  ever  painted  such  word-pictures  of  desola- 
tion, nor  knew  how  to  make  sorrow  more  symbolical. 

Ezechiel  was  of  sacerdotal  race  and  contemporane- 
ous with  Jeremias.  He  was  carried  a  captive  to 
Babylon,  where  he  died.  His  style  of  writing  is 
simple  and  without  pretense.  In  his  language  he 
is  not  so  brilliant  as  Isaias,  but  he  surpasses  Jeremias 
in  elegance. 

Daniel  was  of  the  royal  race  of  Juda,  and  was 
carried  away  captive  to  Babylon  and  brought  up  in 
the  royal  palace.  His  perspicacity  in  interpreting 
Nabuchodonosor's  dream  and  in  showing  the  inno- 
cence of  the  chaste  Susanna,  his  prophecy  concerning 
the  Mene,  Thekel,  and  Pheres  of  the  feast  of  Baltasar 
rendered  him  very  famous  for  his  wisdom  and  knowl- 

418 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

edge  throughout  Babylonia.  Under  Darius  he  be- 
came the  first  of  the  three  ministers  of  the  empire, 
and  Cyrus  also  showed  himself  well  disposed  towards 
Daniel.  He  died  at  Suza.  Ezechiel  in  his  prophe- 
cies mentions  Daniel  as  a  model  of  justice.  The  last 
of  the  great  prophets  therefore  occupied  in  the  court 
of  the  kings  of  Chaldea  and  Persia  a  situation  similar 
to  that  of  Joseph  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh.  Ration- 
alists deny  the  authenticity  of  the  Books  of  Daniel 
and  say  they  were  not  written  until  the  time  of  the 
Machabees ;  but  the  tradition  of  the  Church  and  that 
of  the  Jews  themselves  is  opposed  to  this  theory,  at 
any  rate  as  concerns  the  greater  part  of  these  writ- 
ings. The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  mention  the  Books  of  Daniel, 
who  is  also  quoted  by  the  Jewish  historian,  Josephus. 
We  now  take  up  the  twelve  lesser  prophets.  Osee, 
or  Hosea,  who  lived  at  the  same  time  as  Isaias,  and 
prophesied  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  Joel,  who 
prophesied  about  the  same  time  in  Judea,  were  real 
poets  with  vivid  and  fruitful  imaginations.  Amos, 
the  shepherd,  who  prophesied  against  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  had  a  pastoral  style  and  all  his  figures  of 
speech  are  drawn  from  country  life  and  scenes.  The 
Book  of  Abdias  is  the  shortest  of  all,  and  contains 
but  twenty-one  verses.  The  Book  of  Jonas  does  not 
contain  any  oracles  properly  so-called.  He  relates 
the  mission  he  was  given  to  preach  the  Ninivites,  and 
his  miraculous  sojourn  for  three  days  in  the  body 
of  a  whale,  which  is  a  symbol  of  Our  Lord's  three 
days'  sojourn  in  the  tomb.  Micheas's  prophecies  deal 

419 


THE  VATICAN 

principally  with  the  kingdom  of  Juda.  His  style 
is  remarkable  for  the  elevation  of  thought,  the  bright- 
ness of  expression  and  the  wealth  of  images  and  com- 
parisons. Nahum  prophesied  the  destruction  of 
Ninive  by  the  Babylonians  and  Medes  in  such  vivid 
colors  that  several  critics  have  thought  that  he  must 
have  seen  that  town,  which,  however,  is  unlikely. 
We  learn  in  the  Book  of  Daniel,  that  when  he  was 
thrown  into  the  lions'  den,  Habacuc  fed  him.  Haba- 
cuc's  prayer,  in  the  third  part  of  his  prophecy,  is 
unrivaled  for  its  bold  conception,  sublime  thought 
and  majestic  utterance.  Sophonias  was  a  descend- 
ant of  King  Ezechias.  Aggeus  received  a  mission 
from  God  to  urge  the  Prince  of  Juda  to  complete 
the  second  temple.  Zacharias  was  of  sacerdotal  race 
and  a  contemporary  of  Aggeus,  living  about  the  year 
518  B.  C.  Malachias  prophesied  towards  the  year 
432  B.  C.  His  book  is  a  sort  of  dialogue  between 
God  and  the  people  or  the  priests,  in  which  he  an- 
nounces that  God  will  send  a  second  Elias. 

After  Malachias  there  were  no  more  prophets  until 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  "It  was  about  five  hun- 
dred years  before  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,"  says 
Bossuet  in  his  "Discourse  on  Universal  History"; 
"God  allowed  the  majesty  of  His  Son  to  impose 
silence  on  all  prophecies  during  that  lapse  of  time, 
that  His  people  might  be  kept  waiting  for  the  Mes- 
sias  who  was  to  be  the  accomplishment  of  all  oracles." 

The  New  Testament  is  composed  of  twenty-seven 
books  including  250  chapters  and  7,959  verses.  The 
authors  of  these  books  are  eight  in  number,  six  of 

420 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

whom,  were  Apostles:  St.  Matthew,  St.  John,  St. 
Paul,  St.  James,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Jude,  while  the 
two  last  were  disciples  of  the  Apostles:  St.  Mark 
and  St.  Luke.  From  the  beginning,  the  Church 
placed  their  books  on  the  same  footing  as  those  of 
the  Old  Testament.  They  may  be  divided  into  two 
categories :  the  historical  books,  the  Gospels  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  doctrinal  books,  Apostolic 
Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse.  The  four  Gospels 
contain  the  life,  doctrine  and  passion  of  Our  Lord. 
They  are  by  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke  and 
St.  John.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  appeared 
first,  and  was  written  primarily  in  Hebrew  for  the 
Christians  of  Juda  between  the  year  45  and  48 
of  the  Christian  Era,  and  foretold  among  other  things 
the  punishments  of  the  Jews  for  their  idolatry  and  the 
coming  of  Christ.  St.  Mark  lived  with  St.  Peter, 
who  calls  him  his  son,  after  having  first  spent  some 
time  with  St.  Paul.  Hence  the  name  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Peter  given  by  Tertullian  to  St.  Mark's  Book. 
He  wrote  his  gospel  shortly  after  that  of  St.  Mat- 
thew. St.  Luke's  Gospel  was  written  after  St. 
Mark's,  probably  between  55  and  60,  at  which  time, 
Christianity  was  already  established  in  many  countries 
of  the  Empire  and  most  of  the  Apostles  were  still 
living.  St.  Luke  was  a  doctor  and  a  Gentile  or  of 
pagan  origin.  His  book  was  intended  for  the  Gen- 
tiles. 

Dissenting  critics,  in  opposition  to  Catholics,  have 
questioned  the  authenticity  of  St.  John's  Gospel. 
But  they  are  contradicted  by  testimony  of  the  great- 


THE  VATICAN 

est  antiquity,  such  as  that  of  St.  Irenseus,  Theophilus, 
seventh  Bishop  of  Antioch  in  170,  St.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  in  180  and  Tertullian  in  190.  According 
to  St.  Irenseus,  the  Apostle  St.  John  composed  his 
gospel  on  returning  from  his  exile  in  the  island  of 
Patmos,  to  comply  with  the  desires  of  the  pastors 
and  the  faithful  in  Asia  Minor.  He  was  then  80 
years  of  age.  He  undertook  this  labor  to  refute  the 
impious  systems  of  Cerinthus  and  the  Nicolaitans. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  written  by  St.  Luke 
to  strengthen  the  souls  in  faith  and  to  increase  their 
fervor.  They  are  divinely  inspired  memoirs  concern- 
ing the  establishment  of  the  Church  and  its  early 
development.  They  are  not  so  much  a  history  prop- 
erly speaking,  as  a  series  of  narrations  concerning  the 
works  of  the  Apostles,  especially  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul.  They  complete  the  Gospels,  and  are  the  con- 
tinuation and  culmination  of  those  writings.  St. 
Luke  probably  finished  the  book  in  Rome,  between 
58  and  63. 

St.  Paul's  Epistles  were  addressed  to  the  Romans, 
the  Corinthians,  the  Galatians,  the  Ephesians,  the 
Philippians,  the  Colossians,  the  Hebrews,  the  Thessa- 
lonians,  and  to  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon.  St. 
Paul  was  converted  to  Christianity  about  the  year  35, 
when  he  was  35  years  of  age.  He  commenced  his 
missionary  work  when  about  45  and  was  martyred 
in  67. 

When  St.  Paul  wrote  his  first  Epistles  he  was  al- 
ready famous  throughout  the  Church  and  possessed 
high  authority.  In  reading  the  last  Epistles,  we  per- 

422 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

ceive  that  the  Mosaic  religion  still  retained  great  pres- 
tige. Nearly  everywhere  he  went,  the  Apostle  was 
a  prey  to  persecutions  on  the  part  of  the  Jews  and 
had  to  beware  of  their  perfidious  treatment.  The 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  small  and  poor  by  the  side  of 
the  synagogue,  needed  to  be  upheld,  and  the  Gen- 
tiles who  owed  their  faith  to  that  Church,  helped  it 
with  their  alms.  The  matters  which  chiefly  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  faithful  at  that  time  concerned 
legal  practices  and  the  prerogatives  of  the  ancient 
people. 

The  authenticity  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  has  never 
been  seriously  contested.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
deals  chiefly  with  the  necessity  of  faith.  That  to  the 
Corinthians  discusses  various  abuses  which  had  arisen 
at  Corinth,  decides  questions  touching  marriage, 
celibacy,  meats  consecrated  to  idols,  the  order  to  be 
observed  in  religious  assemblies  and  speaks  of  super- 
natural gifts,  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  the 
money  to  be  collected  for  the  faithful  in  Jerusalem. 
In  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  St.  Paul  writes  of 
his  mission,  of  his  doctrine,  which  is  that  of  the  other 
Apostles,  and  of  justification  by  faith  and  not  by 
law ;  and  he  exhorts  them  to  persevere  in  the  faith  and 
all  the  Christian  virtues.  In  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  he  declares  the  Church  to  be  the  only  in- 
stitution founded  for  the  salvation  of  all  men  and 
gives  precepts  and  counsels  for  leading  a  Christian 
life.  The  letter  to  the  Philippians  is  full  of  con- 
gratulations and  advice ;  that  to  the  Colossians  speaks 
of  Jesus  Christ  and  the  redemption,  and  contains  coun- 
28  423 


THE  VATICAN 

sels  and  exhortations;  in  that  to  the  Thessalonians, 
newly  converted,  he  addresses  words  of  encourage- 
ment and  of  advice,  and  to  Timothy,  his  disciple, 
Bishop  of  Ephesus,  he  dilates  on  the  duties  of  his 
post.  The  second  letter  to  Timothy  is  like  the 
Apostle's  last  testament.  Advice  and  exhortation  are 
here  mingled  with  prophecy  concerning  the  future 
of  the  Church,  and  the  heresies  which  will  arise.  It 
also  contains  some  details  of  a  personal  nature.  The 
tender  feeling  and  emotion  breathed  throughout  this 
letter  recall  the  discourse  at  the  Last  Supper  and 
make  us  feel  that  the  death  of  the  Apostle  is  ap- 
proaching. To  Titus,  placed  by  St.  Paul  at  the 
head  of  the  Church  in  Crete,  the  latter  writes  a  letter 
full  of-  exhortations  and  advice  concerning  the  mission 
entrusted  to  him;  to  Philemon,  a  rich  Christian  at 
Colossa,  he  writes  sending  back  one  of  his  slaves  who 
had  escaped  and  who  had  become  a  Christian.  Noth- 
ing more  touching  than  this  letter  can  be  imagined; 
nothing  more  affectionate,  more  insinuating,  better 
worded  to  impress  a  Christian  heart. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance. St.  Paul  discloses  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
victim  of  the  whole  world,  the  source  of  all  justice;  we 
must  believe  in  Him  if  we  will  be  saved;  Judaism 
has  had  its  day;  the  Christian  religion  must  take  its 
place  and  accomplish  in  a  perfect  manner  for  all 
peoples  throughout  the  world  that  which  the  religion 
of  Moses  began  for  the  children  of  Israel. 

The  Catholic  Epistles  are  letters  from  the  Holy 
Apostles  written  to  combat  nascent  heresies  and  to 

424 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

give  useful  advice  for  a  Christian  life.  They  were 
designated  from  early  times  Catholic  or  Universal 
letters,  because  they  were  not  addressed  to  any  pe- 
culiar people  or  particular  person,  but  to  the  faithful 
in  general. 

In  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  the  Apostle  exhorts 
the  faithful  to  persevere,  reprimands  false  teachers 
and  points  out  the  duties  inherent  in  the  various  con- 
ditions of  life. 

There  are  two  Epistles  of  St.  Peter.  The  first  is 
addressed  from  Rome  to  the  Christians  who  are 
spread  throughout  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  Its 
object  is  to  strengthen  them  in  the  faith  and  in  the 
practice  of  holiness,  in  spite  of  their  trials.  The 
greatness  of  the  Christian  and  the  sublimity  of  his 
vocation  are  extolled,  and  both  people  and  pastors 
are  exhorted  to  seek  perfection  and  to  increase  their 
courage.  From  this  Epistle  we  gather  the  fact  that 
the  name  of  Christian  was  becoming  general  as  ap- 
plied to  the  disciples  of  Christ.  The  second  Epistle 
of  St.  Peter  attacks  heretics  who  deny  the  necessity 
of  good  works,  denounces  in  advance  all  who  are 
preparing  to  persecute  the  Church,  refutes  their 
errors  and  points  out  the  fatal  consequences  of  their 
course. 

St.  John  wrote  three  epistles.  In  the  first,  he 
strengthens  the  faithful  in  their  belief  in  the  Saviour's 
divinity,  and  in  their  conviction  concerning  the  ne- 
cessity of  practicing  virtue,  especially  charity.  In 
the  second,  he  congratulates  Electa  on  her  children's 
virtues,  and  advises  them  to  shun  the  society  of  her- 

425 


THE  VATICAN 

etics.  In  the  third,  he  tells  Gaius  of  the  joy  he  feels 
on  hearing  such  good  report  of  him. 

In  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  the  Apostle  warns  the 
faithful  against  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the  Si- 
monians,  the  Nicolaites  and  the  Gnostics. 

The  Apocalypse  is  the  prophetic  portion  of  the 
New  Testament.  This  book  is  by  the  Apostle  St. 
John,  who  wrote  it  during  his  exile  at  Patmos,  towards 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Domitian.  The  Apostle  first 
gives  various  counsels  to  the  seven  Churches  of  the 
province  of  Asia,  encourages  the  faith  of  the  Chris- 
tians and  rouses  their  fervor  to  face  present  heresy 
and  future  persecution.  He  next  draws  a  picture 
of  the  events  which  will  precede  the  general  resur- 
rection, relates  prophetic  visions  dealing  with  the 
various  trials  which  the  Church  must  suffer,  and  an- 
nounces the  final  victory  of  the  Saviour. 

Such  is  a  general  outline  of  the  character  and  his- 
tory of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  supply  the  bases 
of  our  faith,  which  can  only  be  authentically  and  doc- 
trinally  interpreted  by  the  Church,  as  she  alone  is  the 
depositary  of  the  faith  and  teacher  of  nations. 

CANON  LAW 

Canon  law  may  be  described  as  the  body  of  eccle- 
siastical laws  made  for  the  government  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  and  confirmed  by  the  Pope's  authority. 
Its  study  is,  therefore,  an  entirely  ecclesiastical  sci- 
ence. Hitherto  the  greater  number  of  these  laws  were 
found  in  the  "Corpus  Juris,"  a  very  extensive  and 
rather  diffused  compilation  comprising:  Gratian's 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

"Decretum,"  a  work  by  the  monk  Gratian,  a  Bene- 
dictine of  the  twelfth  century;  the  "Decretals"  of 
Gregory  IX,  1227-1241;  the  "Sextus"  or  sixth  book 
of  the  "Decretals"  of  Boniface  VIII,  1294-1303;  the 
"Clementina?,"  or  constitutions,  compiled  by  Clement 
V,  1305-1314;  the  "Extravagantes"  of  John  XXII, 
1316-1334;  and  the  "Extravagantes  communes,"  a 
collection  of  constitutions  decreed  by  several  Popes. 
The  word  "Extravagantes"  means  constitutions  or 
ordinances  added  to  the  body  of  the  canon  law. 

Quite  recently  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  prepare  a  new  edition  of  the 
canon  law,  divided  into  chapters  and  articles  like  the 
Napoleonic  Code.  This  immense  undertaking  is 
now  under  way  and  it  is  expected  that  it  will  be  com- 
pleted in  1913.  Cardinal  Gaspari,  formerly  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  at  the  Catholic  University  in 
Paris,  is  directing  the  revision. 

Canon  law  is  taught  under  three  heads:  judgments, 
ecclesiastical  persons,  and  things  in  the  Church. 

ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY 

The  history  of  the  Church  from  the  days  of  Our 
Lord  until  the  present  time  is  denominated  ecclesi- 
astical history.  It  is  a  most  important  study,  ac- 
quainting us  with  the  reigns  of  the  Popes  and  the 
principal  events  of  a  religious,  heretical  and  politico- 
religious  nature  which  occurred  under  their  rule. 

Ordinary  history  has  been  justly  said  to  be  an  im- 
mense conspiracy  against  the  Catholic  Church.  We 
refer,  of  course,  to  historical  books  compiled  by  our 

427 


THE  VATICAN 

enemies.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  deform  truth 
when  writing  history,  for  although  a  history  should 
be  impartial,  in  reality,  it  always  reflects  the  thoughts 
and  sentiments  of  the  narrator.  To  give  a  striking 
example  of  the  correctness  of  this  assertion,  it  suffices 
to  mention  the  historical  school  books  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  children  attending  the  public  schools  in 
France  which  have  been  justly  condemned  in  a  joint 
letter  signed  by  the  bishops  of  that  country.  These 
manuals  are  replete  with  lies.  There  is  first,  "the  lie 
by  omission."  The  events  related  have  been  chosen 
with  minute  care,  while  other  facts,  quite  as  important 
and  characteristic,  have  been  omitted,  because  if 
stated  they  would  alter  the  entire  physiognomy  of 
the  epoch  as  set  forth  in  these  books.  The  murder 
of  Admiral  de  Coligny,  on  the  night  of  the  Massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew  is  spread  out  in  great  detail,  with 
much  gusto,  and  an  illustration  to  heighten  the  effect, 
but  nothing  is  said  of  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Guise 
which  was  arranged  by  Coligny.  Either  this  fact  is 
slurred  over,  or  the  motive  is  not  given.  The  first 
act  is  omitted  in  this  political  drama  of  two  acts.  On 
another  page  it  is  stated  that  Clovis  attacked  the  other 
people  of  Gaul  because  they  were  heretics:  but  no 
mention  is  made  of  the  just  causes  which  gave  rise 
to  those  wars,  and  of  the  fact  that  Clovis  thus  brought 
about  the  unity  of  the  Franks,  several  centuries  be- 
fore Anglo-Saxon  or  German  unity  was  established, 
thus  preparing  the  way  for  Charlemagne. 

These  manuals  also  contain  many  examples  of  the 
"lie  by  means  of  exaggerated  effects."     The  authors 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

give  to  certain  events,  exactly  reported  in  the  main 
lines,  an  importance  which  they  did  not  possess  at 
the  time  when  they  occurred,  so  that,  taken  out  of 
their  natural  surroundings  and  thus  laid  before  us 
stripped  of  the  social  and  moral  contemporary  frame 
in  which  they  were  enacted,  they  assume  fantastic 
proportions.  They  relate  that  St.  Louis  used  to 
punish  blasphemers  by  having  their  lips  burned  or 
their  tongues  pierced.  In  similar  manner  they  dis- 
course about  the  Inquisition  and  torture.  They  do 
not  invent,  but  they  are  careful  not  to  point  out  that 
such  customs  were  universal  at  that  time,  and  that 
nations  which  were  not  Christian  had  still  more  cruel 
laws.  Was  impalement,  for  instance,  ever  considered 
legal  torture  in  our  civilization?  Not  only  are  they 
careful  not  to  make  such  just  statements,  but  they 
willfully  connect  such  customs  with  Christians  and 
Churchmen.  Their  perspective  is  defective;  they  do 
not  invent,  but  they  disfigure,  and  so  produce  false 
results. 

Then  we  have  the  "lie  by  suppression."  Certain 
facts  are  systematically  ignored  by  these  authors. 
Thus,  the  vow  uttered  by  Clovis  at  Tolbiac  as  a  pre- 
lude to  his  baptism  is  not  mentioned.  The  holy  names 
of  saints  and  their  works  are  overlooked.  Even  the 
great  deeds  of  the  patron  saint  of  Paris,  Genevieve, 
are  quite  passed  over.  Much  is  said  concerning  the 
misery  prevalent  under  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  but 
no  mention  is  made  of  the  efforts  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  to  alleviate  public  suffering  at  this  time.  Dur- 
ing the  narration  of  the  Religious  Wars,  these 

429 


THE  VATICAN 

authors  devote  many  pages  to  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  but  hardly  mention  the  Protestant 
uprisings  under  Louis  XIII,  posterior  to  that  edict. 

Their  systematic  "mutilation"  of  history  should 
also  be  noted.  In  this  connection  the  Church  and 
priests  appear  only  to  do  harm.  It  must  be  that 
they  experience  great  difficulty  in  explaining  the 
French  history  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  influence 
of  St.  Louis.  So  one  of  them  in  his  "Manual  of 
Moral  and  Civic  Education,"  attributes  the  St.  Bar- 
tholomew massacre,  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  and  the  dragonades  to  the  Middle  Ages! 
One  of  these  manuals  devotes  no  space  to  St.  Louis, 
but  when  one  writes  a  book,  and  entitles  it  "A  History 
of  France,"  it  is  inadmissible  that  such  perversions 
of  the  truth  should  be  allowed  to  stand. 

The  Catholic  Church  could  not  remain  indifferent 
to  many  perfidious  attacks  made  in  the  name  of  so- 
called  scientific  criticism.  Therefore,  she  has  re- 
quired her  learned  men  to  engage  in  historical  re- 
search in  order  to  discover  and  divulge  original 
documents.  Nearly  all  obscure  questions  are  being 
cleared  up  by  their  remarkable  work  and  by  the  teach- 
ing given  in  our  Catholic  universities.  Consequently, 
in  the  future,  historical  misinterpretations  will  not 
be  so  easily  invented. 

For  example,  the  Abbe  Rohrbacher  was  one  of  the 
first  in  France  to  write  a  complete  universal  history 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  twenty-nine  volumes  in  oc- 
tavo, free  from  all  the  fancies  dear  to  the  enemies  of 
Catholicism  and  of  Rome;  and  many  other  able  his- 

430 


WHAT  THE  CHURCH  TEACHES 

torical  works  of  a  like  nature,  covering  different 
countries  and  various  epochs  are  continually  appear- 
ing. 

THE  LITURGY,  ASCETIC  THEOLOGY,  PASTORAL  THEOLOGY 

The  other  ecclesiastical  sciences  emanate  from  Cath- 
olic doctrine.  The  liturgy  teaches  us  the  order  and 
the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  in  divine  worship,  and 
explains  and  shows  us  how  ritual  reflects  our  belief. 
Great  efforts  have  been  made  by  Rome  to  restore 
unity  of  liturgy,  and  they  have  been  crowned  with 
success.  Why  should  there  be  local  differences  in 
liturgy  among  Catholics,  when  their  belief  is  the  same? 
During  the  first  three  centuries  the  Churches  used 
a  Christianized  synagogue  service  followed  by  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  From  this  ceremony 
there  was  gradually  developed  four  distinct  liturgies 
from  which  all  others  are  derived:  those  of  Antioch, 
of  Alexandria,  of  Rome,  and  of  Gaul.  In  the  six- 
teenth century,  nearly  all  of  the  local  types  of  liturgy 
were  abolished  by  Pius  V  who  endeavored  to  restore 
uniformity  of  rite  as  far  as  possible  and  published  a 
revised  Roman  Missal  which  was  to  be  used  by  all  the 
Churches  of  the  Roman  Rite.  Again  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  there  was  a  movement  in  favor  of 
eradicating  many  local  customs  in  France  and  Ger- 
many. Today,  His  Holiness  Pius  X  is  also  laboring 
to  bring  about  unity  in  liturgical  chants,  and  here 
again  success  is  near  realization.  We  cannot  be  too 
grateful  to  the  present  Pope  for  this  act.  One  mode 
of  ceremony,  as  well  as  one  faith,  and  one  system  of 

431 


THE  VATICAN 

singing  through  all  the  dioceses  of  the  world,  will 
demonstrate  as  can  nothing  else,  the  true  Catholicity 
of  the  Church. 

Ascetic  theology  is  that  part  of  the  Church  science 
which  relates  to  the  exercises  of  spiritual  life,  while 
pastoral  theology  deals  with  the  ministry  of  souls  and 
the  pastor's  duties  in  directing  them  according  to  the 
principles  laid  down  by  theology. 

Such  is  the  entire  body  of  the  sacred  sciences  which 
the  priest  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with.  They 
make  up  the  programme  of  studies  in  all  our  large 
seminaries,  where  five  years  are  generally  devoted  to 
their  acquisition, — two  for  scholastic  philosophy  and 
three  for  theology,  while  the  other  ecclesiastical  sci- 
ences are  being  taught  at  the  same  time.  But  this  is 
the  minimum,  for  a  thorough  knowledge  of  such  vast 
subjects  could  easily  fill  a  whole  lifetime. 

In  the  next  and  closing  chapter  of  this  work,  we 
will  examine  how  the  Catholic  Church  watches  over 
the  spiritual  and  every-day  life  of  the  faithful. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES  OF 
CATHOLICISM 

The  Church  as  Guide  in  the  Practical,  Spiritual  and  Christian 
Life  of  the  Faithful — The  Holy  Sacraments — The  Ecclesi- 
astical Laws  Governing  Marriage — The  Prohibitive  and 
Penal  Laws  of  the  Church :  Excommunication ;  Refusal  to 
Administer  the  Sacraments;  Refusal  to  Grant  Ecclesiastical 
Burial;  Opposition  to  Cremation;  Prohibition  of  Duels, 
Hypnotism,  Spiritualism;  Regulations  Concerning  Enter- 
tainments. 

THE  Church  has  received  from  its  Divine  Founder, 
the  mission  not  only  to  teach  all  nations,  but  also  to 
guide  them  in  the  practice  of  all  the  precepts  He  laid 
down:  docentes  eos  servare  omnia  qucecumque  man- 
davi  vobis.  Its  supreme  end  is  to  lead  souls  to 
Heaven,  despite  all  the  obstacles  with  which  their 
earthly  career  is  strewn.  For  that  purpose  spiritu- 
ality must  be  developed  within  the  soul.  The  great- 
est care,  the  most  unceasing  effort  of  the  pastors  of 
the  Church,  is  directed  toward  the  cultivation  and 
increase  of  spiritual  life  among  the  faithful.  Such 
is  the  object  of  public  prayers,  ceremonies  and  various 
services,  besides  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  at 
which  all  must  be  present  on  Sundays  and  Holy 
Days ;  hence  also  the  frequent  encouragement  and  ex- 

433 


THE  VATICAN 

hortation  to  private  and  family  prayer  uttered  by  the 
Popes  and  bishops,  their  numerous  pastoral  letters  on 
matters  of  piety,  and  their  earnest  recommendation 
of  frequent  Communion;  hence  also  the  organization 
of  numerous  confraternities,  sodalities  and  pious  as- 
sociations, generally  centered  in  the  parish  churches 
or  community  chapels,  whom  the  Roman  Pontiffs  en- 
courage by  granting  countless  indulgences  and  spir- 
itual graces  to  their  members;  nor  must  we  forget 
the  public  manifestations  of  faith  and  piety  organ- 
ized by  the  clergy,  such  as  processions  and  pilgrim- 
ages. 

In  this  expansion  of  spiritual  life,  it  is  necessary 
to  guard  against  the  danger  of  false  mysticism,  which 
is  unrestrained,  easily  degenerates  into  eccentricity 
and  heresy,  and  which  would  bring  discredit  on  re- 
ligion, if  it  were  not  unmasked  and  repressed  in  time 
by  ecclesiastical  authority.  Therefore  Rome  and  the 
bishops  exercise  active  and  permanent  control  over 
all  matters  concerning  pious  practices,  as  on  all  ques- 
tions of  general  Church  administration.  No  new 
prayer  nor  devotional  publication  can  be  circu- 
lated without  their  authorization.  Confraternities 
and  pious  associations  come  into  existence  only  when 
they  are  approved,  after  an  examination  of  their 
statutes;  and  it  often  happens  that  Rome  condemns 
and  prohibits  certain  formulas,  or  some  artistic  re- 
production of  the  features  of  Our  Lord,  or  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  as  contrary  to  tradition  and  of  a 
nature  to  give  rise  to  erroneous  interpretations  of 
doctrine. 

434? 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

The  Church  accompanies  its  children  in  their  prac- 
tical Christian  life,  from  the  cradle  to  the  tomb.  It 
is  a  most  pernicious  error  to  believe  that  religion  con- 
sists in  certain  practices  which  we  are  willing  to  sub- 
mit to,  but  that  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  our  political, 
commercial  or  social  life.  Man  is  above  all  things  a 
moral  being  and  every  action  in  the  life  of  church- 
men is  dependent  on  Christian  ethics.  In  whatever 
circumstances  he  finds  himself,  the  Christian  must  act 
in  such  manner  as  his  conscience,  enlightened  by  faith, 
dictates,  and  must  likewise  avoid  doing  evil;  this  ap- 
plies to  his  conduct  in  political  elections  as  well  as  in 
business  transactions  and  social  relations.  Every- 
where and  always  he  carries  with  him  his  free-will, 
but  likewise  he  cannot  lay  down  his  responsibility. 
Ethics  are  an  integral  part  of  religion.  As  is  the 
doctrine,  such  will  be  the  moral  teaching.  We  must 
not,  therefore,  be  surprised  that  the  Catholic  religion 
should  be  interested  in  our  every  action,  and  give  us 
wise  prescriptions  as  the  guardian  and  interpreter  of 
the  moral  teaching  of  Christ.  And  this  the  Church 
does  as  a  mother,  who  not  only  teaches  children  their 
duty,  but  supplies  them  with  the  means  of  accomplish- 
ing it.  In  order  to  do  this,  she  supplies  them  with 
God's  grace,  by  means  of  the  sacraments. 

The  seven  sacraments,  all  established  by  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  notwithstanding  anything  to  the  con- 
trary that  may  be  said  by  non-Catholics,  come  at 
various  epochs  in  the  life  of  a  Christian,  to  bring  him 
the  divine  assistance  which  he  needs  in  the  most  im- 
portant circumstances  of  his  existence. 

435 


THE  VATICAN 

Baptism,,  usually  conferred  at  the  beginning  of 
life,  makes  us  children  of  God  and  of  the  Church. 

Confirmation.,  endows  us  with  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  whereby  we  firmly  believe  and  fearlessly  con- 
fess our  faith. 

The  Eucharist,  in  which  we  receive  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  under  the  appearance  of  bread 
and  wine,  is  a  spiritual  nourishment  for  our  souls. 
Our  Lord  Himself  declares  in  the  Gospel  "Except 
you  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  Man  and  drink  His 
blood,  you  shall  not  have  life  in  you."  Therefore  the 
Church  lays  us  all  under  obligation  to  receive  the  Holy 
Eucharist  at  least  once  a  year, — at  Easter. 

Penance,  by  which  the  penitent  Christian  who  has 
confessed  his  sins,  committed  after  baptism,  is  for- 
given. 

Extreme  Unction  prepares  the  dying  for  eternal 
life  by  conferring  on  them  the  remission  of  their  sins 
and  all  grace  which  may  contribute  to  the  salvation 
of  their  souls  and  even  to  that  of  their  bodies. 

Holy  Orders  gives  spiritual  power  to  all  its  recipi- 
ents and  supplies  priests  to  our  Church. 

Marriage  indissolubly  unites  man  and  woman  and 
gives  them  grace  faithfully  to  do  their  duty.  His 
Holiness  Pius  X  has  recently  simplified  some  of  the 
marriage  formalities.  As  the  teaching  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  regarding  marriage,  is  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  certain  civil  laws,  it  is  perhaps  desirable  to 
state  what  are  the  general  lines  of  that  teaching. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  Church,  marriage  is  a  sacrament 
and  an  essentially  religious  act.  It  depends  on  the 

436 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

Church  alone ;  only  the  Church  can  celebrate  marriage 
between  Christians,  lay  down  its  rules,  examine  and 
solve  the  difficulties  which  may  arise;  therefore  the 
Church  cannot  recognize  civil  marriage  as  valid.  Un- 
til quite  recently,  and  even  now  in  many  Christian  na- 
tions, the  government  yields  before  the  divine  right 
of  the  Church  in  these  matters.  Thus  in  many  coun- 
tries the  civil  registers  are  kept  by  the  clergy;  in 
others,  marriage  celebrated  before  a  priest  has  only 
to  be  recorded  in  the  books  of  the  registry  office  to 
acquire  all  the  efficacy  of  a  civil  act;  in  other  places, 
the  civil  functionary  is  simply  present,  in  his  official 
capacity,  at  the  marriage,  which  is  celebrated  only  by 
the  priest. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  Church  lawfully  celebrated  mar- 
riage is  indissoluble,  according  to  the  words  of  Christ : 
"What  God  hath  joined  let  no  man  put  asunder." 
Quod  Deus  conjunct  homo  non  separet.  History 
tells  us  that  the  Church  has  often  borne  persecution 
on  the  part  of  ruling  sovereigns  whose  wishes  she 
opposed,  in  order  to  maintain  the  indissoluble  char- 
acter of  Christian  marriage.  The  Church,  therefore, 
will  not  sanction  divorce.  Thus  the  Church  defends 
the  very  foundations  on  which  human  society  is 
laid. 

The  Church  allows  separation  only,  and  the  reasons 
for  such  separation  must  be  really  serious.  The 
Roman  Curia  has  been  accused  of  inconsistency,  for 
having  sometimes  dissolved  marriages.  This  error 
is  due  to  a  misunderstanding.  When  the  Church  con- 
cludes, after  most  careful  enquiry,  that  a  marriage 

437 


was  null  at  the  time  when  it  was  celebrated  as  for 
instance  in  default  of  the  consent  of  one  of  the  parties, 
or  through  a  mistake  as  to  the  person;  then  the  mar- 
riage is  annulled  and  declared  to  have  never  existed. 
Therefore  the  Church  cannot  be  said  to  dissolve  mar- 
riage or  to  sanction  divorce. 

There  are  fifteen  impediments  to  marriage,  which 
render  it  null  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church,  from  the  very 
moment  of  its  celebration : 

1-2.  Error  and  Condition.  The  error  must  be  sub- 
stantial as  regards  the  person,  when,  for  instance,  you 
think  you  are  marrying  Ann  and  you  marry  Jane. 
As  to  condition,  this  only  relates  to  slavery,  which  no 
longer  exists  in  Europe,  or  only  in  Turkey.  A  mar- 
riage contracted  with  a  slave  whose  condition  is  un- 
known at  the  time  is  not  valid. 

3-4.  Tows  and  Order.  This  relates  to  the  solemn 
vows  of  chastity  pronounced  in  religious  profession, 
and  the  reception  of  major  orders:  priesthood,  diaco- 
nate  and  sub-diaconate. 

5-6.  Consanguinity  and  Affinity.  The  impediment 
of  consanguinity  is  without  limit  in  the  direct  line: 
grandfather,  father,  daughter,  granddaughter;  but 
only  to  the  fourth  degree  in  the  collateral  line.  In 
the  same  manner  consanguinity  between  brothers  and 
sisters  issued  of  one  father,  or  of  one  mother,  and 
between  brothers  and  sisters,  though  illegitimate,  is  a 
hindrance  to  marriage.  Spiritual  consanguinity  is 
also  an  impediment  to  marriage  between  the  god- 
parent and  the  god-child,  between  the  god-parent  and 
the  natural  parents  of  the  child,  as  also  between  the 

438 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

minister  and  the  receiver  of  the  sacraments  of  bap- 
tism and  confirmation. 

Legal  affinity  impedes  marriage  between  a  person 
and  the  relatives  of  a  previous  consort,  as  for  instance, 
between  brother-in-law  and  sister-in-law,  between 
father-in-law  and  daughter-in-law,  et  cetera. 

7.  Public  Repute.     This  impediment  occurs  in  re- 
lation to  a  real  betrothal  contract,  whence  arises  an 
obstacle  to  the  marriage  of  one  of  the  betrothed  with 
the  relatives  in  the  first  degree  only,  of  the  other 
party. 

8.  Crime.    When   one   of   the   consorts   commits 
adultery  or  kills  the  other,  on  promise  of  marrying  an 
accomplice,  subsequent  marriage  is  impeded. 

9.  Disparity  of  Religion.     This  renders  the  mar- 
riage invalid  between  a  baptized  person  and  an  infidel, 
but  it  only  constitutes  an  hindering  impediment  in  the 
case  of  marriage  between  a  Catholic  and  a  heretic. 
While  seeking  to  dissuade  Catholics  from  mixed  mar- 
riages, the  Church,  nevertheless,  permits  such  unions 
on  condition  that  the  Catholic  consort  shall  not  be 
hindered  in  religious  duties  and  that  the  children  shall 
be  Catholics.     Authorization  for  such  marriages  is 
given  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  only. 

10.  Violence  and  Fear  of  such  a  nature  as  to  para- 
lyze the  will. 

11.  A n    Already    Eodsting    Matrimonial    Bond. 
Thus  a  married  man,  who  truly  believes  his  former 
wife  to  be  dead,  and  who,  in  that  belief,  enters  into  a 
new  bond  of  marriage,  would  not  be  sinning,  but  the 
second  marriage  would  not  be  valid,  and  he  would  be 

29  439 


THE  VATICAN 

forced  to  return  to  his  first  wife  when  he  finds  out  his 
error. 

12.  Age.     To  be  valid,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church, 
marriage  must  not  take  place  before  the  age  of  twelve, 
in  the  case  of  girls,  and  of  fourteen,  in  the  case  of 
boys. 

13.  Clandestinity.     According    to    the    law    Ne 
temere,  April   18,    1908,   binding   on   all   Catholics 
throughout  the  world,  any  marriage  not  contracted 
before  the  parish  priest  of  one  of  the  parties,  and  in 
presence  of  at  least  two  witnesses  is  invalid. 

In  the  case  of  mixed  marriages,  however,  this  rul- 
ing went  into  effect  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  Session 
24,  Chapter  1.  The  council  declared  further  that  "it 
would  become  obligatory  in  each  parish  thirty  days 
after  its  promulgation."  But,  in  order  to  avoid  diffi- 
culties which  would  otherwise  have  arisen,  the  decree 
of  Trent  was  not  promulgated  everywhere,  and  until 
recently  it  was  admittedly  unpromulgated  in  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  Saxony,  Denmark  and  several  places 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  The  decree  of  Janu- 
ary, 1906,  by  which  mixed  marriages  between  Ger- 
mans marrying  within  the  German  Empire  are 
exempted  from  this  law,  remains  in  force. 

Morganatic  marriages  of  reigning  princes  are  not 
clandestine  marriages,  since  they  are  contracted  with 
all  the  formalities  required,  but  they  are  deprived  of 
their  legal  consequences  from  the  civil  point  of  view. 

14.  Impotentia.     This  condition  invalidates  mar- 
riage, according  to  natural  law,  when  preceding  the 
contract,  and  perpetual. 

440 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

15.  Raptus.  If  a  man  carries  off  a  woman  from 
one  place  to  another  with  a  view  of  marrying  her,  the 
Church  nullifies  any  marriage  between  them  so  long 
as  the  woman  is  in  the  man's  power. 

In  theological  colleges  these  fifteen  cases  of  diri- 
ment impediments  are  gathered  into  five  Latin  verses, 
to  impress  them  better  on  the  memory : 

Error,  conditio,  votum,  cognatio,  cr'vmen 
Ctdtus  disparitas,  vis,  ordo,  leg  amen,  honest  as 
Aetas,  a/finis,  si  clandestinus  et  impos 
Raptave  mulier,  nee  parti  reddita  tuta 
Haec  socianda  vetant  connubia,  facta  retractant. 

To  this  list  must  be  added  that  of  the  following  pro- 
hibitive impediments  which  do  not  annul  the  marriage 
but  simply  render  it  illicit:  marriage  of  a  Catholic 
with  a  baptized  person  not  a  Catholic ;  marriage  with- 
out previous  publication  of  banns;  marriage  without 
the  parents'  consent,  which  cannot,  however,  hinder 
the  marriage  in  the  case  of  a  son  who  has  attained 
his  majority  and  observes  the  civil  law  of  "respectful 
summoning  of  his  parents";  solemnization  of  mar- 
riage during  Advent,  from  the  first  Sunday  to  Epiph- 
any inclusively;  during  Lent,  from  Ash  Wednesday 
to  the  Octave  of  Easter  inclusively;  simple  vows  of 
chastity,  of  celibacy,  of  entering  religious  life  or  re- 
ceiving orders. 

The  Pope  can  dispense  from  all  ecclesiastical  hin- 
drances ;  in  the  more  ordinary  cases  he  often  delegates 
his  power  to  the  bishops. 

Do  men  and  women  enjoy  equal  rights  in  mar- 

441 


THE  VATICAN 

riage?  This  is  a  singular  question  which  has  only 
lately  arisen  owing  to  the  progress  of  the  woman 
movement.  No,  their  rights  are  not  equal,  though 
they  are  equally  binding;  they  correspond  to  duties 
which  are  not  equal,  either.  All  legislation,  not  that 
of  the  Church  alone,  recognizes  the  man  as  the  head 
of  the  family,  which  does  not  mean  that  the  woman 
is  his  servant,  still  less  his  slave,  but  his  companion 
whose  right  it  is  to  examine  with  her  husband  all  mat- 
ters concerning  the  welfare  of  their  family,  and  par- 
ticularly the  education  of  their  children,  since  she  has 
been  specially  entrusted  with  this  matter  by  nature. 
Woman's  role  is  sufficiently  high,  and  her  ideal  suffi- 
ciently elevated  in  Catholicism  for  her  to  have  nothing 
to  regret ;  for  she  is  the  delegate  of  Divine  Providence 
towards  all  her  family,  and  her  ideal  is  none  other 
than  the  Mother  of  the  Man-God,  the  Blessed  Virgin 
herself.  Nor  do  Christian  wives  complain  or  consider 
themselves  ill-treated. 

Much  has  been  said  also  concerning  the  rights  of 
children  with  the  object  of  withdrawing  them  as  much 
as  possible  from  family  influence  and  of  placing  their 
educational  training  in  the  power  of  the  state,  espe- 
cially. This  is  the  monstrous  doctrine  of  ancient 
Sparta,  which,  carried  to  extreme  limits,  allowed  the 
state,  as  absolute  master  of  the  children,  to  kill  them 
if  they  did  not  seem  sufficiently  hardy.  The  legisla- 
tion of  all  civilized  lands  admits  that  the  child  belongs 
to  his  parents,  who  receive  from  God  Himself,  by 
nature,  the  right  and  duty  of  bringing  him  up.  The 
natural  rights  of  children  have  no  better  safeguard 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

than  their  parents'  affection;  and  the  poor  mites  who 
are  deprived  of  such  affection  are  much  to  be  pitied. 
The  Church,  with  motherly  love,  tries  to  supplement 
that  affection  in  her  orphanages.  Roman  legislation, 
under  Constantine,  made  the  bishop  official  guardian 
of  all  the  orphans  in  his  diocese. 

If  the  Catholic  Church  is  maternal  in  her  dealing 
with  the  faithful,  above  all  with  the  suffering  and  the 
disinherited  of  this  earth,  she  must  also  be  firm  in  the 
maintenance  of  good  order,  without  which  there  can 
be,  among  men,  no  security  as  to  the  future.  There- 
fore the  Church  has  established  prohibitive  and  even 
penal  laws.  Chief  among  these  is  that  of  excommuni- 
cation which  places  the  offender  without  the  pale  and 
deprives  him  entirely  or  partially  of  the  spiritual 
blessings  which  flow  from  the  Church  to  all  the  faith- 
ful. Excommunication  is  incurred  only  for  grave 
faults ;  but  as  soon  as  the  culprit  recognizes  his  iniquity 
and  begs  forgiveness,  the  Church  joyfully  receives 
him  within  the  pale  again,  as  the  prodigal  son  of  the 
Gospel. 

An  interdict,  or  refusal  of  the  sacraments,  is  an- 
other form  of  censure  which  is  sometimes  decreed  by 
the  Church.  Sacraments  must  not  be  given  to  the  un- 
worthy, according  to  Our  Lord's  words:  "Give  not 
that  which  is  holy  to  the  dogs;  neither  cast  ye  your 
pearls  before  swine."  (St.  Matthew,  7:6.)  And, 
moreover,  would  it  not  cause  scandal  among  the 
faithful  if  they  saw  a  Holy  Communion  administered 
to  a  public  sinner,  while  living  in  adultery,  for  in- 
stance, to  the  knowledge  of  everyone;  or  to  an  apos- 

443 


THE  VATICAN 

tate  who  had  renounced  the  faith  and  become  a  mortal 
enemy  of  the  Church?  How,  also,  could  a  priest  give 
absolution  to  a  penitent  who  refused  to  return  what 
he  had  stolen  or  who  would  not  renounce  his  hatred  of 
another? 

Nevertheless,  a  priest,  who  alone  knew  the  un- 
worthiness  of  a  sinner  whose  crimes  were  unknown 
to  the  public,  could  not,  in  spite  of  his  legitimate 
repugnance,  refuse  to  give  Holy  Communion  to  that 
man  if  he  dared  come  to  the  communion  rail  with 
other  communicants.  (Rituale  Romanum:  de  Eucha- 
ristia.) 

The  refusal  of  Christian  burial,  though  excessively 
painful  for  Christian  families,  is  often  a  necessity  for 
the  Church.  It  cannot  be  granted,  as  will  readily  be 
understood,  to  infidels,  pagans,  Jews,  Mahomedans 
and  children  who  die  before  baptism,  or  to  apostates 
who  publicly  deny  their  faith  and  openly  profess 
atheism  and  die  without  repentance.  Lately,  espe- 
cially in  France,  we  have  seen  sectarians,  notorious 
atheists,  who  died  impenitent,  and  yet  their  friends 
sought  to  force  the  Church  to  grant  them  Christian 
burial.  The  thing  is  both  ridiculous  and  inconsistent. 
Heretics,  excommunicated  .persons,  and  public  sin- 
ners, cannot  be  honored  with  ecclesiastical  burial  if 
they  do  not  return  to  better  sentiments.  The  same 
treatment  is  accorded  to  voluntary  suicides,  that  is  to 
say,  those  whose  reason  is  not  affected  by  disease; 
and  likewise  to  those  who  die  in  a  duel,  if  they  show 
no  signs  of  repentance  or  if  they  do  not  ask  for  a 
priest  before  dying.  (Cardinal  Gousset.) 

444 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

Dueling  is  held  in  abhorrence  by  the  Church. 
Duels  are  condemned  by  natural  law ;  for,  apart  from 
cases  of  legitimate  defense,  God  has  given  to  no  one 
sovereign  power  over  the  life  of  others  or  over  his 
own  life.  They  are  condemned  by  reason,  for  often 
it  is  the  man  who  is  in  the  right  who  is  killed  or 
wounded  by  the  guilty  one ;  hence  there  is  no  repara- 
tion. They  are  condemned,  finally,  by  the  most 
solemn  acts  of  the  Church.  The  Council  of  Trent, 
Session  29,  Chapter  19,  calls  the  duel  "a  detestable 
custom  introduced  by  hell."  Clement  VIII  prohibits 
even  duels  in  which  the  parties  can  only  wound  one 
another,  and  Benedict  XIV,  in  1752,  in  his  Bull 
Detestdbilim.,  again  condemns  duels  and  enumerates 
the  cases  which  would  appear  to  excuse  it:  honor  to 
be  avenged,  military  discipline,  the  fear  of  being  con- 
sidered a  coward,  and  fear  inspired  in  a  badly  gov- 
erned city  where  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  justice. 

The  question  of  the  denial  of  ecclesiastical  burial 
brings  us  to  the  matter  of  cremation,  which  has  been 
much  discussed  during  the  last  few  years.  The 
Church  does  not  approve  of  cremation.  From  the 
beginning,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Roman  catacombs, 
Christians  buried  their  dead  and  did  not  burn  them. 
Inhumation  is,  therefore,  the  ecclesiastical  tradition; 
such  was  also  the  custom  of  the  Jews.  Cremation, 
moreover,  seems  to  lack  respect  towards  bodies  sancti- 
fied by  sacraments  which  have  rendered  them  temples 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  During  the  burial  ceremonies,  at 
the  absolution,  the  priest,  with  a  feeling  of  respect, 
incenses  the  dead.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  modern 

445 


THE  VATICAN 

advocates  of  cremation  were  only  enemies  of  the 
Church  seeking  to  oppose  this  pagan  custom  to 
the  Christian  tradition  of  inhumation  and  to  per- 
suade the  people  that  after  death  all  is  destroyed 
and  nothing  remains.  That  is  why  the  Holy  Office, 
in  three  succeeding  decrees  of  May  19,  1896,  Decem- 
ber 15  of  the  same  year,  and  July  27,  1892,  con- 
demned the  custom  of  cremation. 

The  vigilance  of  the  Church  has  also  examined,  in 
order  to  preserve  her  children  from  all  danger,  those 
practices  which  are  too  apt  to  be  considered  inoffen- 
sive, such  as  hypnotism  and  spiritualism. 

Hypnotism  is  a  cataleptic  sleep  which  places  our 
sensations  and  even  our  will  in  the  control  of  another 
person.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  apply  it  in  medi- 
cine, but  the  results,  though  sometimes  surprising, 
have  not  been  durable  and  have  often  been  stained  by 
humiliating  deceptions.  Hypnotism  practiced  by  un- 
scrupulous persons  has  often  given  rise  to  serious 
faults  against  Christian  ethics.  This  suffices  to  prove 
how  dangerous  it  is.  Moreover,  reason  itself  indicates 
that  we  have  no  right  to  abdicate  our  personal  will,  by 
placing  ourselves  in  the  hands  of  another  who  might 
abuse  the  power  thus  given  him,  and  even  lead  us, 
by  suggestion,  to  commit  a  crime. 

Spiritualism  is  yet  more  dangerous  and  reprehen- 
sible. In  the  minds  of  those  who  practice  it,  it  con- 
sists in  entering  into  communication  with  the  spirits 
and  souls  of  those  who  are  no  longer  in  the  land  of 
the  living,  by  means  of  turning  tables  and  other  simi- 
lar methods.  As  in  the  case  of  hypnotism,  certain 

446 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

persons  have  a  special  aptitude,  singularly  developed, 
rendering  them  subject  to  such  influences,  and  very 
sensitive  as  mediums.  Though  there  has  often  been 
a  great  deal  of  underhand  play  in  spiritualism,  yet 
we  are  obliged  to  admit  that  in  many  cases  cheating 
was  impossible  and  there  have  been  intelligent  preter- 
natural manifestations.  Then  arises  the  real  problem 
of  spiritualism. 

The  Church  recognizes  two  sorts  of  spirits  in  the 
preternatural  world,  subject  to  God  as  is  the  natural 
world :  celestial  spirits,  angels  and  saints ;  and  infernal 
spirits,  demons  and  damned  souls.  To  these  must  be 
added  the  souls  in  purgatory  and  those  of  children 
who  have  died  without  baptism  and  who  cannot  con- 
sequently enter  heaven,  but  who  have  not  been  guilty 
of  anything  that  should  send  them  to  hell.  Theolo- 
gians place  them  in  limbus,  where  they  do  not  suffer. 

That  spirits  have,  by  God's  permission,  appeared 
on  earth,  is  certain  and  is  proved  by  the  examples  we 
find  in  the  Bible.  Tobias  was  accompanied  by  an 
angel,  in  human  form,  who  made  himself  known  after 
having  accomplished  his  mission.  We  have  seen, 
moreover,  that  the  devil  tempted  Our  Lord  after  His 
long  fast  in  the  desert. 

But  our  faith  and  our  reason  rebel  at  the  idea  that 
the  spirits  of  the  blessed  departed  are  at  the  mercy 
of  spiritualists  and  obey  their  caprices  and  their  fan- 
cies. The  only  remaining  hypothesis  is  that,  to  de- 
ceive them,  the  demons  come  at  their  call  and  enter 
into  communication  with  them.  That  which  would 
lead  us  to  believe  this  fact  is  the  anti-Christian  and 

447 


THE  VATICAN 

blasphemous  nature  of  the  declarations  made  by  these 
spirits.  The  unusual  result  of  those  practices  is  to 
lead  those  who  partake  in  them  away  from  their  reli- 
gious duties  and  often  to  make  them  lose  their  reason. 
Said  the  Lord,  "Neither  let  there  be  found  among 
you  anyone  .  .  .  that  consulteth  soothsayers,  or  ob- 
serveth  dreams  and  omens,  neither  let  there  be  any 
wizard,  nor  charmer,  nor  anyone  that  consulteth 
pythonic  spirits,  or  fortune  tellers,  or  that  seeketh 
the  truth  from  the  dead.  For  the  Lord  abhorreth  all 
these  things."  (Deuteronomy,  18:10-12.) 

The  Church  also  watches  over  the  pastimes  of  her 
people  to  enlighten  them  concerning  anything  that 
might  be  seriously  prejudicial  to  the  salvation  of 
their  souls.  Far  from  being  an  enemy  to  innocent 
entertainments,  she  herself  organizes  them  for  her 
children.  In  all  institutions  under  Catholic  patron- 
age, the  youth  are  entertained  by  sports  and  amateur 
theatricals.  During  the  summer  of  1909  Pius  X 
graciously  welcomed  to  the  Vatican  the  athletic  so- 
cieties for  young  Catholics,  and  was  present  at  their 
exercises. 

The  chief  entertainments  permitted  by  the  Church 
are  games,  the  theater  and  dancing. 

Games,  even  games  of  chance  which  are  made  inter- 
esting by  a  stake  of  greater  or  lesser  importance,  so 
long  as  it  be  within  the  individual  means  of  the 
players,  are  not  forbidden  by  divine  law.  But  it 
sometimes  happens  that  passion  steps  in  and  leads 
men  to  commit  reprehensible  actions.  Sometimes 
there  are  disputes  and  violent  quarrels;  sometimes, 

448 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

stealing  in  order  to  procure  the  necessary  money; 
neglect  of  the  most  important  duties  of  life  and  the 
ruin  of  families.  The  Church  cannot  shut  her  eyes 
to  such  disorders. 

Theaters  in  themselves  are  not  reprehensible  and 
the  drama  can  even  inspire  noble  thought  and  fine 
sentiments,  such  as  Corneille's  "Polyeucte."  Never- 
theless, it  must  be  admitted  that  modern  theaters, 
especially  in  France,  have  become  immoral  to  such  a 
degree,  indeed,  that  a  reaction  is  now  setting  in.  A 
syndicate  of  well-meaning  persons  was  recently 
founded  in  Paris  to  cleanse  the  theater  and  to  open, 
in  that  city,  one  or  two  well-regulated  theaters,  where 
fathers  and  mothers  need  not  blush  to  take  their  chil- 
dren. Several  talented  artists,  ashamed  of  interpret- 
ing on  the  stage  immoral  conduct  of  which  they  dis- 
approved, joined  in  this  movement.  This  decadence 
of  the  theater  has  been  severely  criticised  by  the  best- 
known  playwrights  and  those  least  to  be  suspected  of 
narrow-mindedness, — among  others  by  Alexandre 
Dumas  the  younger.  What  can  be  said  in  defense 
of  those  theatrical  revues,  so  popular  in  Paris,  in 
which  the  most  immoral  conversations  and  indecent 
costumes  are  shamelessly  introduced  on  the  stage? 
These  are  schools  of  corruption  which  have  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  lower  character  and  to  disgrace 
literature  itself. 

At  present,  therefore,  theater-going  is  allowed  only 
to  those  Christians  who  attend  plays  in  which  morality 
is  not  prejudiced  either  by  the  staging,  the  costumes 
or  the  text.  Formerly,  in  some  dioceses  of  France, 

449 


THE  VATICAN 

those  who  attended  plays  were  excommunicated  by 
the  private  law  of  those  dioceses.  Such  censure  is 
no  longer  recognized  now,  according  to  the  Provincial 
Council  of  Reims  of  1850. 

Dancing  is  one  of  the  outward  expressions  of 
human  joy.  Like  theater-going  and  gaming,  it  is 
not  prohibited  except  in  special  cases  where  it  leads 
to  the  deplorable  excesses  of  public  balls,  for  instance, 
where  young  girls,  out  of  sight  of  their  mothers,  are 
exposed  without  defense  to  a  thousand  dangers. 
There  are,  moreover,  dances  of  an  indecent  nature  in 
themselves,  the  gestures  and  attitudes  of  which  are 
merely  provocations  to  immorality.  Furthermore, 
there  are  persons  who  are  individually  subject  to  such 
temptations  that  dancing  is  almost  always  dangerous 
for  them  or  at  least  an  occasion  of  sinning  against  the 
virtue  of  purity. 

The  Church  can  but  censure  such  various  excesses 
in  the  dance,  but  has  never  prohibited  dancing  when 
purely  practiced  in  Christian  families,  on  the  occasion 
of  certain  home  celebrations,  such  as  a  baptism,  a 
marriage  or  even  in  private  receptions  between  friends 
and  relatives,  where  due  propriety  prevails,  and 
young  girls  are  accompanied  by  responsible  persons, 
whose  care  it  is  to  watch  over  them. 

Surprise  is  sometimes  expressed  at  the  severity  of 
provincial  parish  priests  who  pitilessly  exclude  from 
their  sodalities  girls  who  attend  balls.  This  case  is 
very  different.  Since  the  members  of  sodalities  are 
supposed  to  be  models  for  the  parish,  their  reputation 
must  be  sheltered  from  all  suspicion.  Moreover,  they 

450 


SPIRITUAL  AND  PRACTICAL  SIDES 

have  themselves  accepted  the  somewhat  more  rigorous 
life  of  a  confraternity  in  which  no  one  obliges  them 
to  remain.  And  finally,  those  who  know  anything 
about  provincial  life,  are  very  well  aware  that  public 
dancing,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
patronal  feast  of  a  village,  is  not  always  free  from 
danger. 


CONCLUSION 

The  careful  investigation  detailed  in  these  pages, 
bearing  on  the  Catholic  Church  throughout  the  world, 
considered  from  every  point  of  view,  necessarily  calls 
for  a  statement  of  the  conclusions  resulting  there- 
from. 

It  is  evident  to  all  right-minded  men,  judging  the 
matter  impartially,  that  Catholicism  occupies  the 
highest  place  in  the  world  and  exercises  the  happiest 
influence  on  civilization  by  its  high  standard  of  ethics 
and  its  teaching.  Its  strong  constitution  and  perfect 
organization  enable  it  to  repel  all  the  attacks  of  its 
enemies  and  not  to  be  undermined  by  the  germs  of 
dissolution  which  finally  destroy  all  human  societies. 
The  Catholic  Church  has  existed  for  nineteen  hundred 
years  and  is  still  the  same  in  her  doctrine,  her  hierarchy 
and  her  traditions.  There  must  be  something  divine 
in  such  an  institution,  therefore,  and  the  Pope  who 
presides  over  its  destinies  cannot  be  an  ordinary  sov- 
ereign ;  he  is  truly  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,  assisted 
by  the  Divine  Master ,  in  the  government  of  His 
Church  in  such  manner  that  he  cannot  iead  us  into 
error.  The  history  of  past  centuries  shows  us  this, 
as  clearly  as  do  all  the  manuals  of  modern  history. 

The  enemies  of  the  Church,  whoever  they  may  be, 
atheists,  the  impious,  freemasons,  Jews,  heretics, 
schismatics,  are  therefore  deceiving  themselves  when 

452 


CONCLUSION 

they  imagine  that  their  efforts  may  end  in  annihilating 
the  Church.  "Ruunt  et  stat  dum  volvitur  orbis" 
The  Cross,  her  symbol,  remains  standing  in  spite  of 
the  furious  waves  which  dash  against  it,  and  while  all 
the  rest  of  the  world  changes,  that  Cross,  which  shel- 
tered our  ancestors,  spreads  its  protecting  arm  over 
us,  and  will  be,  unto  the  end  of  the  world,  the  im- 
movable symbol  of  redemption  and  of  true  civilization. 


THE   END 


A    001  038  887     4 


